BR0WN3 

FIRST LESSONS 

IN 

LANGUAGE 

AND 

GRAMMAR 




ciass^rp e: u ii 

Book :_.ii3_. 

CopightN^ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



BROWN'S FIRST LESSONS 



LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



M^Bc^HALL 

Formerly Principal of lAberty Normal Institute 
LiherUj, N. Y. 



NEW YORK 
WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY 






LIBRARY "♦ CONGRESS 
Two Conies «ec«ved 

JUN 13 1904 
CoDyDetrt CnfTv 



CLASS fli- XXo. Na 



Copyright, 1904 

BY 

WILLIAM WOOD & CO. 



ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK 



0: i\ ::n:t 



PREFACE. 



The author has intended to produce a little book which 
will be graded in matter sufficient for a three years' course. 
It consists of a series of lessons, each of which is both in- 
ductive and deductive, the amount of inductive work being 
greater at the beg'nning of the book. 

Each -lesson contains some grammatical facts for the 
pupil to learn, some questions for him to answer, and some 
written work for him to do. The pupil is also required to 
give a general connected talk about the lesson, and to follow 
with a written paper telling what he has learned about the 
subject. 

If the teacher will require the pupil to learn each lesson 
thoroughly, when he has finished the book he will have 
acquired a systematic knowledge of the elementary prin- 
ciples of English grammar, and he will also have per- 
formed a sufficient amount of written work to enable him 
to express his thoughts readily and freely upon all subjects 
of which he has any definite practical knowledge. The pupil 
will then be prepared to take up the study of formal grammar 
with the ability to comprehend a full and intricate treat- 
ment of the subject. 

From experience m teaching and observation of the various 
methods of presenting this subject the author is conscious 



iv PREFACE. 

of the fact that a great amount of labor will be saved by 
the teacher in carrying out the methods used in this book, 
and the pupil will be required to do so much work that he 
will necessarily become skilful and practical in the appli- 
cation of the simple grammatical principles of English gram- 
mar. 

The teacher's work will be, largely, to show the pupils 
more fully than can be given in the book, for want of space, 
how to leam each lesson; to question them; and to satisfy 
himself that the pupils have performed their work fully and 
properly. 

A simple, practical system of diagrams has been inserted 
with the belief that the use of them will prove interesting and 
attractive to the pupil, and be an aid to him in the analysis 
of a sentence by exhibiting, through illustration, the rela- 
tions which the several words sustain to one another in a 
sentence. 

To acquire a knowledge of the simple elementary principles 
of English grammar it is important that the pupil should 
leam some facts concerning letters, their sounds, their com- 
binations into syllables and words, and that words have 
different meanings in their various relations in the con- 
struction of sentences; that words are classed, according 
to use, into ten parts of speech ; that under these ten heads, 
in their specific uses, they undergo some modifications; 
that to become familiar with such forms and uses the pupil 
must leam (memorize) the declensions of nouns and pro- 
nouns, the comparison of adjectives, and the conjugation 
of verbs; also leam the particular forms of the irregular 
verbs. 

Such preliminary study gives a knowledge of the elementary 
princii)les of English grammar and prepares the pupil for a 



PREFACE V 

regular course in. formal grammar; and such a course is as 
essential to the study of practical grammar as notation, 
numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi- 
sion are to the successful study of practical arithmetic. 

When such study of the subject is performed in the early 
days of school life children memorize their lessons more 
easily and remember them better than at any other period 
of school work. 

This book is a modern application of the elementary prin- 
ciples and definitions of Goold Brown's admirable work on 
English grammar which, through the courtesy of the publish- 
ers, the autlior has been permitted to use. 

The work given in this little book is sufficient to meet the 
requirements of the grades in all schools in which such ele- 
mentary study is pursued. 

Thanks are due to those authors from whose works quota- 
tions have been made, and to the publishers who have kindly 
permitted their use. 

The Author. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGES 

Preface iii-v 

LESSONS 

I. Names of Persous. — How Written 1-3 

• II. Abbreviations and Meanings ; 3, 4 

III. Language. Picture of the School Grounds— The 

Sentence 4-8 

IV. The Paragraph. 8-10 

V. The Declarative Sentence 10, 11 

VI. Proper Names 12, 13 

VII. The Interrogative Sentence. Illustration 13-15 

VIII. The Earth. Illustration 15-17 

IX. A Picture Lesson. Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star 17-19 

X. The Imperative Sentence 19-21 

XL The Exclamatory Sentence 21, 22 

XII. Review Exercises 22 

XIII. General Questions for Review 23, 24 

XIV. Letters and their Uses 24-26 

XV. Names and Sounds of Letters and how Formed 26-28 

XVI. Syllables and Words 28-30 

XVII. Words , 30, 31 

XVIII. Simple and Compound Words 31-33 

XIX. Primitive and Derivative Words 33, 34 

XX. Different Languages 34-36 



ANALYSIS. 

XXI. Subject and Predicate 36-38 

XXII. Subject and Predicate (Continued) 38, 39 

vii 



iii CONTENTS. 

PARTS OF 6PEECH. 

LESSONS PAGES 

XXIII. TheNoun 40-41 

XXIV. The Verb 41-43 

XXV. The Article 44,45 

XXVI. The Pronoun 45-47 

XXVII. The Adjective 47, 48 

XXVIII. The Preposition 49-53 

XXIX. The Adverb 52-54 

XXX. The Participle 54-57 

XXXI. The Conjunction 57-60 

XXXII. The Interjection 60, 61 

XXXIII. Review of the Parts of Speech 61-63 

XXXIV. Expansion of Sentences with Analysis and Pars- 

ing 63-65 



CLASSES AND MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

XXXV. Articles .... 65,66 

XXXVI. Nouns— Classes 67-69 

XXXVII. Modifications — Persons and Numbers 69, 70 

XXXVIII. Numbers 70-74 

XXXIX. Modifications— Genders 74-75 

XL. Cases 75-77 

XLI. Declension of Nouns 77-79 

XLII. Exercises in Construction. , 79, 80 

XLIII. Adjectives— Classes 81-83 

XLIV. Adjectives — Modifications 83-85 

XLV. The Attribute 85-89 

XLVI. Exercises for Analysis and Parsing 89-91 

XLVII. Classes of Pronouns 91-94 

XL VIII. Pronouns — Modifications and Declension 95-98 

XLIX. Compound and Complex Sentences. 98-100 

L. Adjuncts of the Subject 101, 102 

LI. Subject and Object Clauses 102, 103 

LII. Adverbial Adjuncts 103, 104 

LIII. Compound Relative Pronouns. 104, 105 

LIV. Verbs- Classes 106-108 

LV. Verbs— Classes and Signification 109-1 11 

LVI. Exercise in Review 111,112 

LVII. Verbs— Modifications— Moods 112-115 

LVIII. Uses of the Infinitive Mood 115-117 



CONTENTS. ix 

LEBSONa PAGES 

LIX. Tenses 118, 119 

LX. Conjugation of the Verb 120, 121 

LXI. Conjugation of the Verb Love 121-125 

LXII. Observations in the Use of Forms 125-127 

LXIII. Imperative Mood 127-129 

LXIV. Conjugation of the Verb See 129-132 

LXV. Conjugation of the Verb Be 132-135 

LXVI. Compound Form of the Verb Read 135-138 

LXVII. Form of Passive Verbs 138-141 

LXVIII. Form of Negation 141-142 

LXIX-LXXV. List of Irregular Verbs (Different Forms) 142-149 

LXXVI-LXXVIII. Redundant Verbs 149-151 

LXXIX. Defective Verbs 151, 152 

LXXX. Examples for Analysis and Parsing 152, 153 

LXXXI. Participles— Classes 153-156 

LXXXII. Adverbs— Classes 156-158 

LXXXIII. Adverbs of Degree and Manner 158, 159 

LXXX IV. Conjunctive Adverbs 159, 160 

LXXXV. Conjunctive Classes. , 161-163 

LXXXVI. Prepositions 164-166 

LXXXVII. Interjections 166, 167 

LXXXVIII-X . Capitals— Rules 167-171 

LXXXIX. Punctuation— Comma 171, 172 

XC. The Semicolon 173 

XCI. The Colon 174 

XCII. The Interrogation Point 175-176 

XCIII. Quotations 176, 177 

XCIV. The Apostrophe 177, 178 

XCV-CVI. Letter-writing. . . „ 179-193 

CVI. Notes 193-195 

CVII. Checks and Receipts 195, 196 

CVIII-CX. George Washington— Illustration 196-200 

CXI. Mt. Vernon— Illustration 200, 201 

CXII-CXIII. Abraham Lincoln— Illustration 202-204 

CXIV. Formation of Words 204, 205 

CXV. Prefixes and Stems 205, 206 

CXVI. Latin Prefixes 206, 207 

CXVII. Prefixes 207, 208 



FIRST LESSONS 
IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



LESSON I 
NAMES OF PERSONS 

1. John Curtis Hall. 4. J. C. Hall. 

2. John C. Hall. 5. J. C. H. 

3. Jno. C. Hall. 

In 1, the full name of the person is given, and each word 
of the name begins with a capital letter. John Curtis 
is called the given name, Christian name, or baptismal 
name, and Hall, the surname or family name. 

In 2, the letter C, followed by a period (.), is written 
instead of the word Curtis, and is called an initial letter. 

In 3, Jno., followed by a period, is written for the word 
John and is called an abbreviation. 

In 4, the initial letters J. C, each followed by a period, 
are called the initials of the Christian name, and repre- 
sent the two words of the name or stand for them. 

In 5, the letters J. C. H., each followed by a period, are 
called the initials of the name. 

The namfe of a person as he signs it is called his signa- 
ture. The name given to a child by its parents is called 
its given name or Christian name, and if the child is bap- 
tized at the time, it is called its baptismal name. 



2 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

An abbreviation is two or more letters of a word used to 
represent the word or stand for it; as, Wm., for William; 
Chas., for Charles. 

All names of persons are called proper names, and each 
name should always commence with a capital. 

Each word in a name should begin with a capital; as 
Stephen Merritt Brown. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a Christian name? 2. What is a surname? 3. 
What is a signature? 4. What is meant by the initials of a name? 
5. What class of names have you \\Titten? 6. What is Jno. called? 
7. What is an abbreviation? 8. With what kind of letter does 
each word in a name commence? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write your name. 2. Write the names of five boys in this 
school. 3. Write the Christian names of five girls. 4. Copy the 
signatures of five of your schoolmates. 5. Write the names of 
five other persons whom you know. 6. Write the name of the 
President of the United States. 7. Write the name of the Gov- 
ernor of your State. 

Write one name under another and number each name 
as you write it. Be sure that you spell each word cor- 
rectly, and use capitals when necessary. 

REVIEW EXERCISE 

Let the pupil stand and in a connected manner tell what he 
knows about the lesson which he has studied. 

Suggestions to the Pupil. — Tell what a given name is, — a 
surname, — an initial letter, — an abbreviation, — a proper name, — 
when capitals are used in \\Titing names, — what a signature is,-- 
and whatever else you have learned about the lesson. 

Note. — This is a very important exercise, and should be required 
of everj'- pupil, after each separate lesson has been learned throughout 
the book. It constitutes a ready review exercise, and lays the founda- 



ABBREVIATIONS 3 

tion for public speaking. In fact, the pupil should be so familiar with 
the lesson that he can talk about it and explain every part of it without 
referring to the book. 



LESSON II 



ABBREVIATIONS 



In Lesson I, you learned the meaning of an abbreviation. 
The follo^dng abbreviations are frequently used : 

ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE MONTHS OF THE YEAR 



Jan. 


January. 




July. 


Feb. 


February 


Aug. 


August. 




March. 


Sept. 


September. 


Apr. 


April. 


Oct. 


October. 




May. 


Nov. 


November. 




June. 


Dec. 


December. 



ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE DAYS OF THE WEEK 

Sun. Sunday. Thurs. Thursday. 

Mon. Monday. Frid. Friday. 

Tues. Tuesday. Sat. Saturday. 

Wed. Wednesday. 



ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE NAMES OF PERSONS 



Alex. 


Alexander 


Alf. 


Alfred. 


Benj. 


Benjamin. 


Chas. 


Charles. 


Ed. 


Edward. 


Eliz. 


Elizabeth. 


Dan. 


Daniel. 



Geo. 


George. 


Hen. 


Henrv\ 


Wm. 


Wilham. 


Jos. 


Joseph. 


Jno. 


John. 


Rob. 


Rebecca. 


Hez 


Hezekiah. 



4 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
OTHER ABBREVIATIONS 

P.M. afternoon. qt. quart. 

A.M. forenoon. oz. ounce. 

No. number. ft. foot. 

St. street. in. inch, 

lb. pound. yd. yard. 

ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES 

Mr. Mister. A.M. Master of Arts. 

Mrs. Mistress. Hon. Honorable. 

Miss A title prefixed to Jun.,Jr. Junior. 

the name of a girl Pres. President. 

or unmarried wo- Gov. Governor. 

man. — Standard Gen. General. 

Die. Col. Colonel. 

Rev. Reverend. Supt. Superintendent. 

Dr. Doctor or Debtor. Ed. Editor. 

M.D. Doctor of Medicine. Prof. Professor. 

A.B. Bachelor of Arts. 

Note. — The abbreAdations may be used as an oral exercise in spelling. 
The teacher may give the abbreviation and the pupil may spell the 
word for which the abbreviation stands; also the word and let the pupil 
give the abbreviation. 

Exercise to be copied by the pupils; then used by the 
teacher for a dictation exercise. 

1. Mr. George F. Thorp, No. 10 E. 66th St., New York City, N. Y. 

2. Messrs. Stout & Williams, 101 Fifth Ave., New York City, N.Y. 

3. Gov. B. B. Odell, Executive Mansion, Albany, N. Y. 

4. Miss Nancy I. Moore, Sec. W. C. T. U., Grahamsville, Sulli 
van Co., N. Y. 

5. The Fifth Avenue Hotel is situated at the junction of Fifth 
Avenue, Broadway, and 23d St., New York City. 

6. Dr. W. S. Winter took a Broadway car at the corner of Cham- 
bers St. and Broadway and rode to 42d St. He then took a cross- 
to\\'Ti car to 42d St. Ferry. Here he took the Ontario & Western 
train for Liberty, a pretty little village in the interior of the State, 
about 120 miles from New York City. 



LANGUAGE 5 

LESSON III 

LANGUAGE 

We think about persons and things around us. What 
we think is called our thoughts; and, in speaking or 
writing, we use words to express our thoughts to others. 




School Grounds and Buildings 

Language is the expression of thought in speaking or 
writing. 

The words used in speaking are called spoken language 
or SPEECH. The words used in writing are called written 
LANGUAGE. PRINTED WORDS are another form of written 
language. 



6 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

When words are combined in a proper manner so as to 
express a thought which makes complete sense, they form 
what is called a sentence. 

EXAMPLES 

1 . Here is a picture of the school grounds and buildings. 

2. The flag of our country, the Stars and Stripes, is waving from 
the top of the flag-pole. 

3. Some boys and girls are in the yard. 

4. The sun shines warm and bright this morning. 

5. William is pointing towards the flag and talking. 

G. Lillie, Mary, John, and Henry are listening to him. 

7. The flowers on each side of the walk look very pretty. 

8. The trees afford fine, cool, delightful shade in the summer. 

9. The school -bell is now ringing. 

10. The grass looks green, and the flowers are fragrant; for it 
is summer. 

11. The four seasons of the year are spring, summer, autumn, 
and winter. 

We may put words together so that they will not form a 
sentence; thus, William to-day, a new bought book has; 
but, if we combine them properly, they will make com- 
plete sense ; as, William has bought a new book to-day. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words which make 
complete sense; as, " This boy is now studying grammar." 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Copy neatly and carefully the eleven sentences here 
given, observing the use of capitals and punctuation 
marks. Number each sentence as you write it and be sure 
that you spell each word correcth^ 

Copy the definition of language; also the definition of 
the sentence. Write a list of the names of things which 
you see in the picture. Number each word as you write it. 



LANGUAGE 7 

QUESTIONS 

1. For what purpose are words used? 2. What is speech? 
3. What is language? 4. What are the names of the seasons? 
5. Do the names of the seasons begin with capitals or small 
letters? 6. What is a sentence? 7. Which do you like bet- 
ter, summer or winter? Why? 8. With what kind of letter 
does each sentence begin? 9. How many stars are there on 
the flag? 10. Do the stars represent the number of States 
in the Union? 11. How many stripes are there on the flag? 
12. How many colors has the flag? 13. Why is it called the 
National Flag? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write three sentences each about the flag, the school 
buildings, the bell, the grass, the trees, the flowers, the 
birds. 

Write three sentences each about a book, a pencil, a 
table, a desk, a clock, a window, a map. 

EXAMPLE 

1. The flag has forty-five stars (1903) on a blue background. 
2. The flag has thirteen stripes, seven red and six white. 3. The 
flag is now waving in the breeze. 

Write about w^hat studies you have in your school and 
which you like best. 

REVIEW EXERCISE 

Tell what you can, in a connected manner, about the 
lesson 3^ou have learned. 

Suggestions. — Tell what words express, — what speech is, — 
what language is, — what a sentence is; — toll the names of the 
seasons; — talk about the grass, — tlie trees, — the flowers, — 
the birds ; — tell about the flag. 



8 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

WRITTEN REVIEW EXERCISE 

With pen, ink, and paper, write what you have learned 
about your lesson in the same manner that you talked 
about it. 

In writing remember that, — 

1. The first word of every distinct sentence should begin 
with a Capital letter. 

2. All names of persons should begin with capitals. 

3. The names of the seasons do not begin with capitals. 

4. A period should be placed at the end of each statement 
which you make. 



LESSON IV 
THE PARAGRAPH 

A Composition on Lesson III, Illustrating the Use of the 
Paragraph. The picture in Lesson III represents the grounds 
and buildings of a public school. The school buildings look as if 
they were well arranged and convenient. 

The trees, the flowers, the grasses, and the walks, make the 
grounds look neat and attractive. Here, too, the pupils may 
study botany, and learn how to tell the names of the different 
kinds of trees, plants, flowers, and grasses found there. 

The flag now waving in the breeze may be seen wherever you 
see a school in session. It is well calculated to inspire patriotism 
in the hearts of the pupils, and cause them to love their own country 
the best. 

In this school the pupils have an opportunity to acquire a good 
education. They are expected to take proper care of their books 
and desks, and also to be respectful and polite to one another. In 
this way they acquire not only a knowledge of the studies they 
pursue, but also good social culture. 

This lesson has been very interesting, but I think each pupil 
has been obliged to think, as well as study, to learn it. We all 



THE PARAGRAPH 9 

think that learning to talk and to write about each lesson learned 
is very helpful to us. 

Our teacher thinks that our language work is one of the most 
valuable lessons that we have in our school. She says that the 
review talk is a test of how much we know about the lesson. 

Composition means something composed of several parts. 
There are several subjects talked about in this lesson. These put 
together form a composition. 

In the exercise just given there are several parts which 
united form a composition. Each of these parts is called 

a PARAGRAPH. 

The first word in the first line in each paragraph is in- 
dented or set in farther from the margin of the paper 
than the line following it. 

A paragraph is one or more sentences which form a dis- 
tinct part of a discourse, or writing. 

EXERCISE-IN PARAGRAPHING 

Write in separate paragraphs all the definitions in Lesson 
IV; also the directions for the use of capitals. Remember 
to indent the first word in each paragraph as was done in the 
composition. Copy the composition and be sure you have 
every punctuation point and capital letter in its proper place. 

In newspapers, sometimes, a single sentence written 
about some person or thing is called a paragraph; as, 

— Mr. Ira Winters is sick with the rheumatism. 
— Miss Alice Rogers, Miss Minnie Weber, and Miss Sarah 
Douglass went to the city last Friday. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write a paragraph about the weather. 

Write six paragraphs about school matters. 

Write six paragraphs about different things wliich you 
saw on your way to school. 

Write six paragraphs a]:)out different things whicli you 
saw in a store. 



10 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a paragraph? 2. Of what is a composition, 
or writing, composed? 3. How should the first word in 
each paragraph be written? 4. What does Mr. denote, and 
what is it called? 

REVIEW 

Give a general talk about the lesson. 



LESSON V 

THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE 

If you write "James can read " you make a statement 
which affirms, states, or tells something, and you make an 
affirmation; but if you wTite "James cannot read " you 
make a statement which denies what has been said, or 
makes a denial, and such a statement is called a negation. 

A statement is that which is told or stated. 

An affirmation is a statement which affirms or tells some- 
thing. 

A negation is a statement which makes a denial. 

A declarative sentence is a sentence which expresses an 
affirmation or negation. 

A period should be placed at the end of every declarative 
sentence. 

EXAMPLES 

1. Washington is called the father of his country. 2. Henry 
is not so old as James. 3. The boy did not know his lesson. 4. 
The Mississippi is the longest river in the world. 

Make a list of the following sentences which express an 
affirmation; also a list of those which express a negation. 



THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE 11 

Number each sentence as you write it, observing carefully 
the capitals and punctuation. 

1. The mind is that which knows, feels, and thinks. 2. New 
York is called the Empire State. 3. Iron is a useful metal. 4. 
The boy was not kind to his sister. 5. Gold is called a precious 
metal. 6. Benedict Arnold was a traitor to his country. 7. 
James lives near Central Park. 8. The sky is blue. 9. Charles 
Sumner was a citizen of Massachusetts. 10. Trees have roots, 
trunks, branches, and leaves. 11. I shall be ten years old 
next Thursday. 12. Cigarettes are not good for boys. 13. 
Reading makes a full man, -writing makes a correct man, and 
talking makes a ready man. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write affirmative sentences each of which will contain 
one of the following words: 

Ink-well, desk, water-pail, map, globe, broom, pencil, book, 
lesson, door, floor, window, book-case. 

Write sentences, each of which will express a negation, 
using one of the following words in each sentence : 

Noon, night, stars, lesson, Henry, help, complain, compare, 
have, understand, weather, write, think. 

Write answers to the following questions: 
1. How long does it take you to go from your home to 
your school? 2, Which of the winter sports do you like 
best? 3. Can you study and think about play at the same 
time? Why not? 4. "V^Tiat is a declarative sentence? 5. 
What is a statement? 6. What is an affirmation? 7. What 
is a negation? 

GIVE A REVIEW TALK ON THE LESSON 

Suggestions. — Talk about the sentence, — an affirmation, — 
a negation, — a statement; — the meaning of words, with their 
uses in sentences. 

Take your book, or paper, and give reasons for the use of 
capitals in the sentences which you have copied. 



12 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON VI 
PROPER NAMES 

1. The winter months are December, January, and February. 

2. The first day of the week is called Sunday. 

3. Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York City, Bos- 
ton, New Orleans, San Francisco, and Chicago are names of cities. 

4. Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year's 
are holidays. 

5. James has a dog named Nero. 

6. Lillie has a parrot, and its name is Polly. 

7. Henry has a yoke of steers; one he named Buck and the 
other Dandy. 

8. Fannie has a doll, and she calls it Bessie. 

9. Canary birds are found in the Canary Islands. 

10. Long Island is a part of the State of New York. 

11. The first Monday in September is called Labor Day. 

12. Mercury and Venus are the names of two planets. 

13. There are seven stars near the Polar Star, which, from tlie 
figure they form, are called the Dipper. 

Any word used as a particular name is a proper name 
and should begin with a capital. 

The names of the days of the week should begin with 
capitals. 

The names of the months of the year should begin with 
capitals. 

The proper names of places should begin with capitals. 

All names of persons should begin with capitals; and 
sometimes of things to whom a proper name is given ; as, 
Hessie calls her doll " Bright Eyes." 

The names of the seasons do not begin with capitals. 

Proper names of every description should begin with 
capitals. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Copy the thirteen sentences illustrating the use of 
proper names, and be prepared to give the reason for the use 
of each capital letter at the recitation hour. 



THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 13 

2. Write the names of the days of the week. 

3. Write the names of the months of the year. 

4. Write the names of the hohdays for your State. 

5. Write the names of five cities in your State. 

6. Write the names of five rivers in your State. 

7. Write the names of five m.ountains in the United States. 

8. Write the names of five islands near the Atlantic coast. 
Write the different names under their respective heads, 

and number each word in the group. Thus, under the head 
of Days of the Week, write the names of the days of the week. 

REVIEW EXERCISES 

Tell all about particular names and common names, and give 
rule for the use of capitals. Talk about the holidays and tell why 
such days were made holidays. Tell which months are not abbre- 
viated in writing. 



LESSON VII 
THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 

1. In the picture what is the girl doing? 2. What is the 
boy doing? 3. What is the dog doing? 4. Is it fun for the 
boy? 5. Does the girl pity the cat? 6. Does the cat feel 
safe? 7. Can a dog climb a tree? Why not? 8. Can a cat 
climb a tree? 

When a person writes such sentences, he interrogates or 
asks questions, and they are called interrogative sentences. 
The character (?) placed at the end of the sentence is called 
an interrogation point. It denotes that a question is 
asked. 

To interrogate means to ask. 

An interrogative sentence is a sentence which is used to 
ask a question. 



14 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 




An interrogation point should be placed at the end of 
every interrogative sentence. 



WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write answers to questions asked about the picture. 
2. Write about what you can see in the picture, and what 
you think happened to the cat. 3. Write the definition of 
an interrogative sentence. 4. Give the meaning of interro- 



THE EARTH 15 

gate. 5. Write five questions about a cat. 6. Write five 
questions about a dog. 7. Write five questions about a tree. 

REVIEW TALK ON THE LESSON 

1. Describe the picture by telling what you see in it. 2. Tell 
the difference between a declarative and an interrogative sentence. 
3. Tell how each is punctuated. 4. Tell why a cat can climb a 
tree, and why a dog cannot. 



LESSON VIII 
THE EARTH 

The earth on which we live is round like a globe or ball. There 
is a point on the earth's surface which is called the North Pole 
and another which is called the South Pole. An imaginary line 
drawn through the eai'th from one pole to the other is called the 
earth's axis. The north pole points toward the North Star in the 
sky. 

When the sky is clear at night, you can see the north star. Near 
the north star is a cluster of stars in the shape of a dipper. Two 
stars in the bowl of the dipper, opposite the handle, form a line 
with the north star, so that you can always readily find this star 
by first finding the Dipper. 

In the evening, if you stand and look at the north star with 
your hands extended from your sides, your right hand will point 
toward the east, your left toward the west, and the south will be 
behind you. These four directions — North, South, East, and 
West — are called the four cardinal points of the compass. Then 
halfway between north and east will be northeast. The earth 
rotates (turns) on its axis from west to east once in twenty-four 
hours, and it revolves around the sun once a j^ear of three hundred, 
sixty-five, and one-fourth days. 

The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere (the air) about fifty 
miles in deptli. Beyond the atmosphere the space is supposed to 
be filled with some ethereal substance lighter than air. It has a 



16 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 




blue color, and, when you look up, you see this blue color, which 
is called the sky or heavens above. Up is always toward the sky 
above 3-ou, and down, toward the center of the earth. The earth 
is also called the world, sphere, or globe. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the shape of the earth? 2. What are the names 
of the poles of the earth? 3. In what direction does the 
north pole point ? 4. Where is the Dipper, and of how many 
stars is it composed? 5. What is the earth's axis? 6. How 
can you find the north star by the Dipper? 7. What are 
the four cardinal points of the compass? 8. In what direc- 
tion does the earth rotate? 9. In w^hat direction is north- 
east? 10. In what direction is northwest? 11. How often 



A PICTURE LESSON 17 

does the earth rotate or turn on its axis? 12. How long 
does it take the earth to revolve around the sun? 13. By 
what is the earth surrounded? 14. In what direction is up? 
15. In what direction is down? 16. By what names is the 
earth called? 17. In what direction is the north star from 
the earth? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Copy the description of the earth. 2. Write an answer 
to each of the seventeen questions. 3. Write questions such 
as you desire to ask about the lesson, and number them. 

REVIEW EXERCISE 

Tell in a connected manner, what you have learned about the 
lesson, and be sure that you have learned all about it. Write, in 
a connected manner, about this lesson just as you have talked 
about it. 



LESSON IX 
A PICTURE LESSON 

TWINKLE, TWINKLE, LITTLE STAR 

" Twinkle, twinkle, little star, 
How I wonder what you are! 
Up above the world so high, 
Like a diamond in the sky. 

" When the glorious sun is set, 
When the grass with dew is wet. 
Then j'^ou show your little light; 
Twinkle, twinkle, all the night. 

" In the dark blue sky you keep. 
And often through my curtains peep; 
For you never shut your eye 
Till the sun is in the sky. 



18 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 




"As your bright and tiny sparlv 
Lights the traveler in the dark, 
Though I know not what you are, 
Twinkle, twinkle, little star." 

Note. — The double inverted commas at the beginning of each 
stanza, and the apostrophes at the ending of this selection, denote 
that it was taken from some other writer; that is, quoted; and the 
points are called quotation marks. 

Write answers to the following questions: 
1. What different objects do you see in the picture? 2. 
Were you ever in a boat on a lake? 3. What can you see 
beyond the lake? 4. What can the boy on the piazza see 
overhead? 5. How can you find the north star? 6. In 
what direction is it from the center of the earth? 7. How 
does a star resemble a diamond? 8. What is the sky? 9. 
WTiat is dew? 10. What becomes of the dew on the grass 



THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE 19 

after the sun has risen? 11. When are capitals used in 
writing this poem? 12. How does poetry differ from prose 
in the use of capitals? 

Note. — Each line in this poem is called a verse; and the four lines 
are called a stanza. Sometimes a stanza contains more than four lines. 

Commit this poem to memory, so that you can recite it; 
or, from memory, write it. 



1. Describe the picture bj'' telling what you see in it. 2. Tell 
why you cannot see the stars in the daytime. 3. Tell the differ- 
ence between a verse and a stanza. Ans. — A verse is usually one 
line in poetry. A stanza is two, four, six, or more lines, which 
form a distinct part, or portion of a poem. 

The first word in every line of poetry should begin with 
a capital. 



LESSON X 
THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE 

1. Henry, bring your slate to me. 2. I\Iaud, look at the clock 
and tell me what time it is. 3. Go to the ant, thou sluggard, and 
learn to be wise. 4. Charles, do be careful while you are in the 
boat on the pond. 5. Lillie, try to keep your feet dry. 6. 
Henry, learn all you can by observation as well as by stud}'. 7. 
Always do what you think is right. 8. Remember that careful, 
persistent study insures good lessons. 

In 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 8, commands are given; and in 4 
and 5 entreaties are made. Such sentences are called 

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

To ENTREAT mCanS TO ASK, TO BESEECH, TO REQUEST. 

To COMMAND means to direct, to order. 
An imperative sentence is a sentence which expresses 
a command or an entreaty; as, "Henry, copy these sen- 



20 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

tences neatly on paper," " Henry, do write these sentences 
so that you will feel proud of your effort." 

A period should be placed at the end of every impera- 
tive sentence. 

The name of a person addressed should be set off by a 
comma; as, "James, be sure that you are right, then go 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Copy the eight sentences given at the beginning of this les- 
son ; then change each to an interrogative sentence. 

Write imperative sentences using, in each, one of the 
following words: Write, read, compare, prepare, talk, bring, 
call, send, go, return. 

Copy the following sentences and classify them as declara- 
tive, interrogative, and imperative: 

1. Children, obey your teachers. 2. A beehouse is a house for 
bees to live in. 3. Take care, James, the bees might sting you. 
4. Knowledge is power. 5. Our country's flag is freedom's em- 
blem. 6. "Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep." 7. 
Is your lesson learned? 8. Which is the largest city in the United 
States? 9. The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart. 10. 
Those little birds in the trees sing sweetly. 11. Measure your life 
by acts of goodness, not by years. 12. Socrates said, "I believe 
that the soul is immortal." 13. Socrates said that he believed in 
the immortality of the soul. 14. James said, "I have lost my 
knife." 15. "I have found it," cried Henry. 16. Little Mabel 
asked, "Papa, who makes it snow?" 

Note.— In 12, the words enclosed in quotation marks are the exact 
words of Socrates; but in 13, some one has stated in his own language 
what Socrates said. 

The exact language of another person, enclosed in quota- 
tion marks, is called a quotation. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the meaning of entreat? of command? 2. 
What is an imperative sentence? 3. What punctuation 
mark should be placed after an imperative sentence? 4. 



THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE 21 

What is the difference between to interrogate and to command ? 
5. In 12, what Socrates said is enclosed in quotation marks, 
and these words quoted form a sentence. This sentence, 
used as if it were a word, is the object of said. Tlie whole 
sentence then is declarative. 

REVIEW TALK 

Suggestions. — Talk about an imperative sentence, — to 
entreat, — to command; — the use of a comma after the name 
of a person addressed, — the punctuation of an imperative 
sentence. Tell what a quotation is, — how it is enclosed, — 
about the marks, and about the difference between the inter- 
rogative and the imperative sentence. 



LESSON XI 
THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE 

1. O, see that horse running away! 2. Hark! some one is com- 
ing up the steps. 3. O, Jennie! see Fido run after the cat! 4. 
Quick! man the boat; away they sprang! 5. Get off the track! 
the train is coming! 6. All ready ! one, two, three — go! 7. How 
the ^\ind does whistle through the trees! 8. "I know not what 
course others may take; but, as for me, give me liberty or give 
me death!" — Patrick Henry. 9. "Oh the great deep of suffering 
in every human breast!" 10. look! see how hard it rains! 

This mark or sign (!) is called an exclamation point. 
It denotes some sudden expression of feeling; as, in sen- 
tences 1-10. 

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence which expresses 
an exclamation ; as, " 0, see that balloon up in the air ! " 

An exclamatory sentence should be followed by an ex- 
clamation point. 

Any word used as an exclamation should be followed by 
an exclamation point; as, "Stop!" "Look!" "Listen!" 



22 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Copy the ten sentences at the beginning of this lesson. 
2. Write the definition of an exclamatory sentence. 3. Tell 
what an exclamation point denotes. 4. Select and write 
five exclamatory sentences from your Reader. 5. Tell why 
the exclamation point is used in each of the ten sentences. 

REVIEW 

Give a connected talk about the lesson. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write what you can about this lesson just as you have 
talked about it. 



LESSON XII 

REVIEW EXERCISES 

From the list below write all the declarative, the impera- 
tive, the interrogative, and the exclamatory sentences, placing 
each under its respective head. 

1. In what State is Philadelphia situated? 2. Why is one dol- 
lar equal in value to ten dimes? 3. Choose good company or have 
none at all. 4. 0, how I wish I were a boy again! 5. Oh! how 
the wind does blow! 6. Charles, wTite your address on your slate. 
7. Does your brother go to school this winter? 8. Marion, you 
may answer this question. 9. The names of the months should 
begin Avith capitals. 10. Write your exercise neatly and plainly. 
IL Why do you go now? 12. The names of the days of the week 
begin with capitals. 13. Remember thy Creator in the days of 
thy youth. 14. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 15. 
Is this lesson too easy? IG. I am glad that Christmas is coming. 
17. What a fine dog Nero is! 18. How bright the stars shine 
to-night ! 



GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 23 

LESSON XIII 
GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

1. To what is the word thought apphed? 2. What do you 
use to express your thoughts? 3. What is language? 4. 
What is a sentence? 5. What is the difference between a 
thought and a sentence? 6. What kind of sentences have 
we talked about up to this time? 7. What is a declarative 
sentence? An imperative sentence? An interrogative sen- 
tence? An exclamatory sentence? 8. In writing a sentence 
what word should always commence with a capital? 9. 
What are the names of the seasons? 10. Which season do 
you like best? Why? IL Should the days of the week 
begin with capitals? 12. What punctuation mark is used 
at the end of each kind of sentence? 

Note. — The pupil should give complete answers to all questions, 
and he should feel that the habit of giving clear, full, explicit answers 
gives him greater power in the expression of thought. 

WRITTEN REVIEW 

1. Define language. 2. Define a sentence. 3. Name the 
four kinds of sentences. 4. Write seven sentences each of 
which will contain the name of one of the days of the week. 
5. Write twelve sentences each of which will contain the 
name of a month. 6. Write the names of the sentences 
which require a period at the end. 7. Write the names of 
the holidays in your State. 

GENERAL CLASS EXERCISE 

Let the pupils copy at their seats, then, in the class, give 
reasons for the use of capitals in each of the following sen- 
tences, each in turn taking one. 

1. The boys and girls expect Santa Claus at Christmas. 2. 
New Year's, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Election Day, Thanks, 
giving, February 22, are holidays. 



24 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

3. Thirty days hath September, 
April, June, and November; 
All the rest have thirty-one, 
Excepting February alone. 
Which has twenty-eight three times, 
And leap-year gives it twenty-nine. 

4. James w^ent home on Friday, and returned on Monday. 5. 
December, January, and February are winter months. 6. Apple- 
trees bloom in May and have ripe fruit in September. 7. George 
Washington was the first President of the United States. 8. New 
Orleans is situated on the Mississippi River in the State of Louisiana, 
near the Gulf of Mexico. 9. Sleepy Hollow, so named by Wash- 
ington Irving, is near the Hudson River. 10. George AVashington 
was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, February 22, 1732. 
11. Washington, the capital of the United States, is situated on 
the Potomac River, in the District of Columbia. 12. Benjamin 
Franklin was the author of Poor Richard's Almanac. 13. City 
Hall, New York City, stands in a park which is located betw^een 
Chambers Street on the north, Park Row on the east, Broadway 
on the west, and Mail Street (a narrow lane which separates it from 
the Post-office building) on the south. 



LESSON X'lV 
LETTERS AND THEIR USES 

1. Ale, senate, care, am, arm, ask, final, all. 

2. Time, this, thin, -eut, cent, coal. 

3. Out, you, toy, miss, roll, built. 
~ Macron, ~-^ breve, ^ circumflex. 

In ale, senate, care, am, arm, ask, final, qll different 
sounds of the letter a are used. In time, t represents its 
only primary sound ; but in this, th taken together, repre- 
sent one sound; and in tJmi, another sound. C in cut 
and cent represents two different sounds. in coal repre- 



LETTERS AND THEIR USES 25 

sents one sound; but in out, it is combined with 'w and 
forms a compound sound. In you the o is not sounded. 
Oy in toy is also a compound sound. In miss, ss has the 
same sound as s, only more prolonged. R-o-1 is pronounced 
rol; but r-o-11 is pronounced roll — a different sound. 

You see, then, that a letter may represent one or more 
than one sound, may be compounded with one or more 
sounds, or may be silent. 

The marks over and under the letters, used to represent 
their different sounds, are called diacritical marks. 

A simple sound is a primary sound, first sound ; as a in 
ale, t in time. 

Any combination of two or more sounds is called a com- 
pound sound ; as, oy in boy ; uoi in quoit ; or there may be 
two letters to represent one sound ; as, ou. 

A letter is a character commonly representing some 
elementary sound of a word. 

An elementary sound of a word is a simple primary 
sound of the human voice used in speaking. 

A diacritical mark is a mark used with a letter to indi- 
cate its proper sound ; as, a in ale ; a in at. 

The alphabet contains twenty-six letters arranged in a 
certain order, and each letter has a particular form and 
name; also one sound or more than one. 

The letters used in English have severally two forms, 
CAPITALS and small letters. 

The following letters are called Roman letters, because 
they are like those used by the Romans in ancient times. 

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, etc. 

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, etc. 

There are Italic letters, so called because they are the 
same in form as those used by the Italians. 

Examples: These are the Italian forms of letters. 



26 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

The forms in writing are called script. 
Examples: Christmas comes but once a year. 

WRITTEN WORK 

1. Write the words in the first three lines of the exercise, 
observing carefully the use of diacritical marks and the 
punctuation points. 2. Write sentences, using, in each, one 
of the words copied. Example of such use : This is an age of 
wonderful inventions. 3. Copy carefully the definitions given 
and commit them to memory. 4. Write any questions that 
you desire to ask about the lesson in order that they may be 
explained in the class. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Of what is the alphabet composed? 2. What is a letter? 
3. What do letters represent? 4. What forms have letters? 
5. What are Roman letters? 6. What are Italic letters? 
7. What is script? 8. What is an elementary sound of a 
letter? 9. What is a compound sound? 10. What is a 
diacritical mark? 

Give a Review Talk on the Lesson. Suggestions — 
Talk about the letters, their forms and sounds; the use of 
diacritical marks; the definitions; the Roman letters; the 
Italian letters ; the script. Give illustrations of simple sounds 
of letters; of compound sounds; of silent letters. 

Write about the lesson as you would talk about it. 



LESSON XV 

NAMES AND SOUNDS OF LETTERS AND HO"W FORMED 

The letters a, e, i, o, u have names the same as the first 
sound of each letter respectively. Each of these letters 
forms a complete sound when uttered alone, and is called a 
vowel. 



NAMES AND SOUNDS OF LETTERS AND HOW FORMED 27 

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when 
uttered alone ; as, a, e, o. 

The names of the other letters are variously formed. 
Eight of them are formed by using the sound of the letter 
before e. Their names are he, ce, de, ge, pe, te, ve, and ze. 

Six are formed by using the sound of the letter after e. 
These are ef, el, em, en, es, apd ex. 

The names of the other letters are variousl)^ formed; 
namely, ja, ka, qu, ar, aitch, douhle-u, and loi. 

Such letters are called consonants because they cannot 
be clearly uttered until joined to a vowel. 

Con means with, sonant, sounding ; and consonant means 
sounding with another sound. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered 
until joined to a vowel. 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel 
heard in the same syllable ; as, wine, twine, ye, yet, youth ; 
in all other cases these letters are vowels;' as, newly, 
dewy, eyebrow, try, myrrh. 

Some vowel sounds are compound; namel}^, that) of i 
formed of a and i; and that of u formed from i and q. 

Enunciate the simple sounds together rapidly and you will give the 
compound sound. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write a list of the vowels. 2. Write a list of the con- 
sonants. 3. Write a list of the letters which are placed sepa- 
rately before e to form the name of the letter, 4. Write a 
list of the letters which are placed separately after e to form 
the name of the letter. 5. Write a list of words which are 
the names of the other letters. 6. Write the definition of 
vowel. 7. Write the definition of consonant. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What letters are vowels? 2. What letters are some- 
times vowels and sometimes consonants? 3. What is a con- 



28 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

sonant? 4. What does consonant mean? 5. What is a 
vowel? 6. Mention a vowel which has a compound sound 
and tell what sounds compose it. 7. What is the difference 
between a vowel and a consonant ? 8. What do letters rep- 
resent? 9. Tell, in a connected manner, what you know 
about this lesson. 

WRITTEN REVIEW 

Write, in a connected manner, what you know about this 
lesson. 



LESSON XVI 
SYLLABLES AND WORDS 

1. Pail, paper, able, ability. 2. Base, tliough, bound, boat, 
voice, plough, plain. 3. Moon, book, diphthong, dipthongal, 4. 
Anxious, review, cautious, viewless. 

In 1, letters joined together as p-a-i-l, pail, form a word of one 
syllable. Paper is a word of two syllables. Ability is a word of 
four syllables. 

A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound and is either a word or a part of a word. 

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the 
sign of some idea or some manner of thought. 

A word has as many distinct sounds as there are syl- 
lables. 

An idea is a mental picture of something perceived in 
the mind. 

Example: Look steadily at a tree for a moment, then turn your 
eyes away and try to think how the tree looks. The tree that you see 
in your mind is a mental picture, and the word tree represents the idea 
of the picture. 

A SYLLABLE always contains one vowel so as to form a 
perfect sound; and it may contain two or three vowels, or 
one or more consonants with a vowel ; as man, a, moon, buoy, 
learn. 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS 29 

When a letter that is not sounded is used in a syllable, 
it is said to be mute or silent; as the letter e in base, 
and the letters u, g, h in though. 

In boat a is silent; in plough, gh are silent; in hound, 
ou form one sound, and the two vowels so united form 
what is called a diphthong; in 'plain, the i is silent; in 
voice, oi are combined in one sound; in moon the diph- 
thongal sound (ob) is long ; in look the diphthongal sound 
(06) is short. 

In diphthong, di, used for dis, means two, and phthong, 
(Greek) means a sound of the voice. 

In anxious the three vowels i, 0, u are combined in one 
syllable, and are called a triphthong. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; as, 
eau in beau ; lew in view ; iou in anxious. 

When two vowels are joined in one syllable and both are 
sounded they form what is called a proper diphthong; 
as oi in voice; but if only one is sounded then the diph- 
thong is improper; as, oa in boat, the a being silent. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, 
ea in beat ; ou in sound ; oi in voice ; ow in cow. 

A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both of 
the vowels are sounded ; as, ou in out ; ow in cow. 

An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which only 
one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf ; ea in mean. 

A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all the 
vowels are soimded ; as, uoy in buoy ; uoi in quoit. 

An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which only 
one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty ; 
iou in anxious. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write sentences each of which .shall contain one of the 
words at the beginning of this lesson. 2. Write the definition 



30 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

of a syllable; of a word; of a diphthong; of a proper diph- 
thong; of an improper diphthong; of a triphthong; of a 
proper triphthong; of an improper triphthong. 3. Write 
the following words one under another, and at the right of 
each \vTiie the diphthong or diphthongs which it contains 
with the word proper or improper after each as is required. 

13. degree 

14. coward 

15. conpcipuce 

16. prairie 

17. journey 

18. issue 
Fountain — ou (proper); ai (improper). 
Fourteen — ou (improper); ee (improper). 

In the same manner write after each of the following 
words the triphthong which it contains: 

10. cautious 

11. outrageous 



1. moon 


7. builder 


2. chief 


8. pointed 


3. goods 


9. despair 


4. reign 


10. either 


5. spoon 


11. ancient 


6. town 


12. maintain 


Example : 


Fountain — c 



19. receiver 

20. joyous 

21. jealous 

22. nation 

23. teaspoon 

24. school -boy 



1. awe-struck 

2. eyelet 

3. buoyant 



4. viewless 

5. beauteous 

6. adieu 



7. anxious 

8. quaint 

9. review 



QUESTIONS 

1. What is a syllable? 2. What may a syllable contain? 
3. What is a word? 4. What is an idea? 5. What are your 
thoughts? 6. What is a silent letter? 7. When two vowels 
are joined in one syllable what are they called? S. Define 
diphthong; improper di])hthong; proper diphthong; triph- 
thong; improper triphthong; proper triphthong. 9. Give 
a general review of the lesson. 



LESvSON XVII 
WORDS 
A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound and is either a word or a part of a word. 

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the 
sign of some idea or some manner of thought. 



SIMPLE AND COMPOUND WORDS 31 

Mono means one ; dis, two ; tri, three ; and poly, many. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable. 

A dissyllable is a word of two syllables. 

A trisyllable is a word of three syllables. 

A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write a word of one syllable containing a diphthong; 
a triphthong. 2. Write a hst of five monosyllables; five 
dissyllables; five trisyllables; five polysyllables. 3. Write 
a sentence containing a trisyllable. 4. Write a sentence 
containing a polysyllable. 5. Copy the definitions in this 
lesson. 6. Give a talk on the lesson. 



LESSON XVIII 
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND WORDS 

1. Watch, man, watchman; never, the, less, neverthe- 
less. 2. Bird-cage, all-wise, school-boy, full-growTi. 3. 
Moonbeam, horseman, bluebird, penknife, spoonful. 

In 1, the two simple words watch, man joined together 
form the compound word watchman. Nevertheless is a 
compound word composed of three simple words — never, 
the, less. 

In 2, bird and cage are two simple words, but when 
joined together with a hyphen (-) they form a compound 
word. 

In 3, moonbeam is a compound word composed of moon 
and beam joined together ^Adthout a hyphen. 

We have, then, simple words and compound words. The 
parts of some compound words are joined together with a 
hyphen and the parts of some others without a hyphen. 



32 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

When a compound word has but one syllable accented in 
pronunciation no hyphen is used; as, watchword, slates- 
man, teaspoon, jackknife. 

A compound word with both words equally accented 
requires a hyphen ; as, red-hot, school-book, new-coined. 

A simple word is a word not formed from any simpler 
word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. 

A compound word is a word formed from two or more 
simple words; as, watchman, schoolmate, good-natured, 
well-being. 

The hj^phen is used to connect the parts of many words, 
especially such as have two accents. It is sometimes used 
to show the division of words into syllables ; as tel-e-scope, 
com-mu-ni-cate. It is also placed at the end of a line to 
show that one or more syllables are carried over to the 
nextUne; as, turhii-lent. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write compound words from the following simple words 
joining any two that may be proj^erly united and using the 
hyphen when required. 

Bird, pen, ship, cage, wreck, knife, mouse, moon, beam, trap, 
shine, sun, day, week, time, mint, pepper, church, box, man, arm, 
good, yard, watch, clock, maker, rail, school, road, master. 

EXAMPLE 

Bird-cage, penknife, mousetrap. 

Write three sentences each about a horseman, a bluebird, 
a penknife, a moonbeam, a bird-cage, a gentleman. 

*QUESTIONS 

1. What is a simple word? 2. What is a compound word? 
3. How are many compound words formed? 4. When are 
compound words connected with a hyphen? 5. When are 
compound words written without a hyphen? 6. For what 



PRIMITIVE AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 33 

different purposes is a hyphen used? 7. Give a general talk 
on the lesson. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write what you know about this lesson as you talked 
about it. 



LESSON XIX 

PRIMITIVE AND DERIVATIVE WORDS 

1. Mis, rule, misrule; im, print, imprint. 2. Great, 
ly, greatly; connect, ed, connected. 3. Connect, con- 
nection, connector, connectedly. 4. Appear, reappears, 
disappear, disappeared. 

In 1, the prefix mis, and the primitive word rule, when 
combined, form the derivative word misrule. 

A prefix is one or more syllables united with the begin- 
ning of a word to form a derivative word; as, pre in 
prefix; con in conjure; pre in prepaid; mis in misrule. 

A primitive word is a word not formed from any sim- 
pler word in the language; as, rule, good, smoke, rain, 
charm. 

A derivative word is a word derived from some sim- 
pler word in the language; as, misrule from rule; good- 
ness from good ; smoking from smoke ; rained from rain ; 
charming from charm; prepaid from paid. 

In 2, the primitive word great, united with the suffix ly, 
forms the derivative word greatly; and connect, with the 
suffix ed, forms connected. 

A suffix is one or more syllables combined with the end 
of a word to form a derivative word; as, great with ly 
forms greatly; faith with ful, faithful; read with er, reader. 

In 3, connect with ion forms conitcction; and conned 
with two suffixes, ed and ly forms the word con)wctcdly. 



34 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

In 4, from appear, with prefixes and suffixes, are formed 
the words reappear, disappear, disappeared. 

A primitive word may have a prefix or a suffix, or both 
prefix and suffix, or more than one of each to form a de- 
rivative word. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write as many derivative words as you can from the fol- 
lowing primitive words: 

Command, appear, construct, elect, cover, press, inhabit, 
destroy, proper, prepare, confound. 

In forming these derivative words make selections from 
the following prefixes and suffixes : 

Er, ed, ment, ing, dis, re, or, lion, ive, urn, op, com, de, able, anee, 
cy, ant, ate, less, ly. 

Example: Conceal, concealable, concealed, concealedh^ con- 
cealedness, concealer, concealment. 

Write the definition of word, derivative ivord, primitive word, 

prefix, suffix. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How are derivative words formed? 2. What is a primi- 
tive word? 3. What is a suffix? 4. What is a prefix? 5. 
What is a derivative word? 6. Tell how a prefix joined to a 
word changes its meaning. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write what you know about primitive and derivative words 







LESSON XX 








DIFFERENT 


LANGUAGES 






English. 


Old Engllsh. 


German. 


Latin. 


1. 


Father. 


Fader. 


Vater. 


Pater. 


2. 


Mother. 


Moder. 


Mutter. 


Mater. 


3. 


Sun. 


Sunne. 


Sonne. 


Sol. 


4. 


Moon. 


Mone. 


Mond. 


Mensis, Luna. 



DIFFERENT LANGUAGES 35 

There are more than a thousand languages and dialects 
in the world. 

A person or thing is represented in different languages 
by different words which have the same meaning. 

Thus in 1, father is English; fader is Old English; Vater, 
German; and pater, Latin. 

In 2, 3, 4, different words express respectively mother, 
sun, and moon in the languages mentioned. 

We often see people in this country who speak the lan- 
guage of the country from which they came. MauA^ 
people who speak English may be found in other parts of 
the world. 

You should first learn to speak and write 3^our own 
language correctly; then you can more easily learn an- 
other language. 

To learn to speak and write your own language cor- 
rectly, you must learn the proper form and meaning of 
each word and its use in its relations with other words in 
sentences. This is called the study of grammar and the 
art of using words correctly in accordance with the usage 
of the best speakers and writers. 

English grammar is the art of speaking and writing the 
English language correctly. 

We may separate a sentence into words, and a word into 
letters. 

A letter is called the simplest element of written lan- 
guage. 

A sound of a letter is the simplest element of spoken 
language. 

An element is one of the simple parts of which anything 
is composed. 



36 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
QUESTIONS 

1. How many languages are there in the world? How is 
the name of a person or thing written in different languages? 

3. How is Father written in Old English, German, and Latin? 

4. Did you ever hear a person speak in German? 5. Could 
you understand him? 6. How can you learn to sp^ak and 
write your own language correctly? 7. What is English 
Grammar? 8. What is the simplest element of a written 
word? 9. What is the simplest element of a spoken word? 
10. What is an element of a word? 11, Give a general talk 
about the lesson. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write out what you have learned about the languages of 
the world and give a general description of the contents of the 
lesson. 



ANALYSIS 
LESSON XXI 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

1. Charles studies. 2. Birds fly. 3. Trees grow. 4. Dogs 
bark. 5. Fishes swims. 6. Boys play. 7. Grass grows. 8. 
Flowers bloom. 

In the sentence, Charles studies, Charles is the name of a 
person about which something is said; and studies is a 
word which denotes what is said about Charles. 

Charles is called the subject, and studies is called the 

PREDICATE. 

The SUBJECT and predicate united always form a 

SENTENCE. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 37 

The subject and predicate may be put into a diagram 
as follows: 



J^ This character always indicates 



the simple subject and predicate. 

Oral analysis. — Charles is the subject because it is the 
name of a person about which something is said. Studies 
is the predicate because it denotes what is said about the 
subject. 

The subject of a sentence is that about which some- 
thing is said. 

The predicate of a sentence is that which denotes what 
is said about the subject. 

A diagram is a figure illustrating, in grammar, the use 
of each word in a sentence. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Put each of the eight sentences given, into diagram, and 
give an oral analysis of each. Supply a subject in the place 
of each of the following blanks, put each sentence into dia- 
gram, and give an oral analysis of each. 

1. play. 6. leap. 

2. walk. 7. slide. 

3. saiL 8. scratch. 

4. ■ sing. 9. think. 

5. shout. 10. swing. 

Always give a reason for the use of each M'ord and repeat 
the definition of the term used. 

Supply predicates in the place of the blanks, put each sen- 
tence into diagram, and give an oral analysis of each. Repeat 
definitions of terms usetl. 



38 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



L Children . 6. Watches 

2. Dandelions . 7. Frogs — 

3. Turkeys . 8. Robins - 

4. Ice . 9. Horses - 



5. Flowers . 10. Seeds . 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a sentence? 2. What is the subject of a sen- 
tence? 3. What is the predicate of a sentence? 4. What do 
the subject and predicate always form? 5. What is a diagram 
of a sentence? 6. What is a statement? 7. Give a con- 
nected talk about the lesson. 8. Write a composition about 
the lesson. 



LESSON XXII 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE (Continued) 
The subject and predicate may each contain more 
than one word. 

1. Boys study. 2. The stars are shining. 3. William Henry 
Arnold is reading. 4. The boy is talking. 5. The little boy has 
been reading. 6. The boy might have been hurt. 7. The horse 
runs swiftly. 8. The black horse is running swiftly. 9. The cold 
bleak November wind is blowing. 

In 1, give an oral analysis and definitions of the terms 
used. 

In 2, The relates to the subject stars and are shilling is 
the predicate. 

In 3, William Henry Arnold, the full name of the boy, 
is the subject. 

In 7, swiftly is used to tell how the horse runs, and is 
an adjunct of runs. 

A word which relates to another word in a sentence, to 
limit or modify its meaning, is called an adjunct. 

In 8, swiftly relates to the predicate is running; that is, 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 39 

the two words is running perform the same office as one 
word. 

Put each of the nine sentences into diagram, and give an 
oral analysis of each sentence. 

Example : 



horse / - ^ is running 





■ This character denotes an adjunct word. 

In analyzing sentences the learner must consider 
the meaning and use of each word and classify 
it according to its use. 

Diagram the following sentences, and give an oral analysis 
of each. 

1. The canary bird sings sweetly. 2, The snow is falling rap- 
idly. 3. The diligent pupil improves rapidly. 4. A good boy will 
study diligently. 5. The old dog is barking. 6. The white roses 
are now blooming. 7. The full moon is just rising. 8. The 
chanticleer is crowing lustily. 9. A free people should be edu- 
cated. 10. The school bell is now ringing. 11. Is Charles study- 
ing now? 12. Has Willie come back? 13. James, write plainly. 
Example : 

[James] 
(you) ^ ,~ ^ write 




In 11, transpose the words before analyzing. 

In 13, you is understood as the subject. James is independent by 
direct address. 

The subject and predicate, united in different ways, may 
make an assertion, ask a question, express a command, or 



40 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

an exclamation; as, The boy studies. Did the boy study? 
John, run. 0, see that horse running away! 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts 
which compose it. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 
LESSON XXIII 

THE NOUN 

1. James, Henry, WilUam Brown, Lottie A. Canfield. 

2. Albany, New York, Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia. 

3. Pen, book, jDencil, slate, air, sound, truth, flowers, fragrance, 
thunder, apple, iron, fur. 

In 1, are given names of persons; in 2, names of places; 
in 3, names of things. 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, 
George, Boston, apple, truth. 

Whatever you can perceive by the senses; that is, what- 
ever you can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell, must have a 
name so as to distinguish one person or thing from another 
You cannot write or talk clearly about persons, places, or 
things without giving them names. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write the names of five things which you can perceive 
by the sense of seeing. 2. Write the names of five things 
which you can perceive by the sense of hearing. 3. Write 
the names of five things which you can perceive by the sense 
of taste. 4. Write the names of five things which you can 
perceive by the sense of touch. 5. Write the names of five 
things which you can perceive by the sense of smell. 6. Write 
the names of five places in your State. 7. Write the names 



THE VERB 41 

of five persons whom you know. 8. Write the names of 
eight parts of the exterior of the head. 9. Write the names 
of five parts of a chair. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the names of the five senses? 2. In writing 
the names of persons, places, and things, which words should 
always begin with capitals? 3. What does exterior mean? 
4. Why is it necessary to give names to everything around us? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write sentences each of which will contain one of the 
following words used as a noun: 

Boy, act, squirrel, Henry, watermelon, apple, pear, dog, 
truth, paper, pencil, desk, exterior, signature. 

Give a review talk about the lesson. 

Write a composition telling what you know about the noun. 



LESSON XXIV 

THE VERB 

1. Birds fly. 2. Henry is taught. 3. He is. 4. She 

In 1, the use of the word fly is to denote what birds do; 
that is, what action they perform. In 2, is taught denotes 
what is done to Henry. In 3, is denotes being or existence 
without action of any kind. In 4, sleeps denotes being in 
a certain state or condition. 

The word in a sentence which denotes that the subject 
is spoken of as being, acting, or being acted upon, is called a 
verb. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon; as, "He is," "He writes," "He was hurt"; 



42 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

" The boy is here," *' The boy writes," " The boy was 
caught," " He sleeps." 

Sometimes the action expressed by the verb passes over 
to some person or thing called an object; as, 1, John saws 
wood; 2, Mary picked a flower; 3, Henry felled a tree. 

The object answers to the question, What? after the 
verb. Thus, John saws what? Answer — Wood. Mary 
picked what? Answer — A flower. 

The object in a sentence is that which receives the action 
of the verb as performed by the subject. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns 
and the verbs. 

1. Boys play ball. 7. The lesson was learned. 

2. Cats catch mice. 8. She sleeps. 

3. The mouse was caught. 9. Mice eat cheese. 

4. The boy is playing. 10. Foxes catch chickens. 

5. Squirrels climb trees. 11. Columbus discovered America. 

6. Birds sing songs. 12. The dog barks. 
Example : 

Boys ^^ play 

ball 



I This character always denotes an object of a verb or a 

participle. 

This is a declarative sentence, because it expresses an affirmation. 

The subject is boys, because it denotes what is spoken of in the sen- 
tence. 

Play is the predicate verb, because it denotes what is said of the sub- 
ject. 

Ball is the object, because it receives the action of the verb and helps 
to denote what the boys are doing. 

Boys is a noun, because it is the name of a class of persons. 

Play is a verb, because it denotes what is said about boys. 

Ball is a noun, because it is the name of a thing. 

The pupil should give a definition of each term used in 
analysis and parsing when he uses it. Thus, in analysis, he 



THE VERB 43 

should give the definition of declarative sentence, subject, 
predicate, and object; and in parsing, the definition of 
noun, verb, and object. 

Copy the following expressions and supply suitable 
verbs in place of the blanks. 

1. The man from Boston. 2. The book mine. 

3. The boy on the burning deck. 4. The birds . 



5. The sun — -. 6. The visitors ■ through the gate. 

7. The wind very hard. 8. The apples sour. 

9. Iron — — ■ — - heavy. 10. Honesty the best policy. 11. 

The artist a picture. 12. The grocer tea and 

coffee. 13. Grammar a useful stud)'. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write sentences each of which will contain one of the 
following verbs : 

Is, am, was, were, has, had, caught, did, will go, may be caught, 
can read, has been reading, did consider, has beeti recommended, may 
write. 

Select and write from the following sentences such verbs 
as denote action, acted upon, being, or state of being. Ar- 
range each verb under its proper head. 

1. The boy is on duty. 2. The horse can run very fasto 3. The 
cat is asleep "on the rug in the kitchen. 4. Mary studies her 
grammar lesson at home. 5. The old oaken bucket hangs in the 
well. 6. Washington was called the Father of his Countr3\ 7. 
The flowers bloom in the spring. S. The tree stands on the hill. 
9. Henry saw the elephant at the circus. 10. The boy's finger 
was crushed under a stone. 11. America was discovered by 
Columbus. 12. The squirrel was caught in a trap. 



44 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON XXV 
THE ARTICLE 

1. A boy, a pencil, a cat, a union, a horse, a song. 

2. An ox, an apple, an eye, an hour, an inkstand. 

3. The boy, the boys, the snow, the cat, the man, the men. 

In 1, observe that a is used to point out one thing of a 
kind, and that it is inserted only before words beginning 
with a consonant sound. In 2, that an is used before 
words beginning with a vowel sound, and that it refers 
only to one thing of a kind. In 3, that the is used before 
words beginning with either a consonant or a vowel sound, 
and may refer to one thing or more than one. 

In I, also, union commences with a consonant sound. 
In hoiir (2) li is silent. 

The three words a, an, the, are called articles. 

An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before 
a noun to limit its signification; as, "The air," "The 
boys," " An ox," "A hat." 

Put into diagram and analyze each of the following sen- 
tences. Parse the article, the noun, and the verb. 

1. The man killed a bear. 

2. The dog caught a squirrel. 

3. A rat ate the cheese. 

4. An ox will eat hay. 

5. The man picked an apple. 

6. Anna Bookwalter has a fan. 

7. The boy has written a composition. 

8. Charles J. Abbott has killed a squirrel. 

9. The Greeks loved the fine arts. 

10. A diamond will cut glass. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Supply the proper article in the place of a dash in each of 



the f ollqwing sentences : 



THE PRONOUN 45 

1. ■ old crow sat on top of high tree. 

2. spider is interesting little creature. 

3. James has apple, pear, and orange. 

4. Shakespeare was English poet. 

5. orange is better than pear, apple, or 

quince. 

6. teacher and pupils had holiday. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Before words beginning with what sound is a used? 
2. What is a consonant? 3. What is a vowel? 4. Why does 
the word Greeks commence with a capital? 5. What is an 
article ? 6. Give a review talk on the article. 



LESSON XXVI 
THE PRONOUN 

1. Henry said Henry would get Henry's book and go to school. 

2. Henry said he would get his book and go to school. 

3. I am glad that you are here. 

4. The boys ate the boys' lunch under an apple tree. 

5. The boys ate their lunch under an apple tree. 

In 2, the words he and Ms are used instead of Henry and 
Henry's as in 1. This saves the repetition of words in a 
sentence. 

In 3, / is used instead of the name of the speaker and 
you is used instead of the name of the person addressed. 

In 5, their is used instead of boys' as in 4. These words 
are used instead of the nouns for which they stand, and are 
called pronouns. 

Pro means for, and noun, a name. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, " The 
boy has long lessons and he learns them well." 



46 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Copy the following sentences and draw a line under 
each pronoun : 

1. Frank studies his grammar lesson at his home at night. 

2. Henry and Frank took their skates and went on the pond. 

3. The farmer fed his horse, and gave it some water to drink. 

4. A great ehn tree spread its branches over their homestead. 

5. The shouts of the children came to us through our window. 

6. I have broken my kite which you gave me. 

Copy the following sentences and supply suitable pro- 
noims in place of the blanks : 

1. The boy sold skates to friend Willie. 

2. Mary cut finger with the knife gave 

to . 

3. Henry saw some fine pictures, but did not buy . 

4. What is — that see on the lake? 

5. Can tell where Henry keeps sled? 

6. Harry took ■■ — skates with when went 

on the pond. 

7. will go now if will please get hats. 

8. This is sister's book bought at 

book-store. 

9. If plagues the cat will scratch . 

10. is good for to be here. 

Write sentences each of which shall contain one or more 
of the following pronouns: 

/, you, we, he, she, it, they, vie, him, her, them, us, xoho, which, 
what, that. 

Example : Tell me, if you please, what time it is. 

Put into diagram the following sentences. Analyze each 
sentence and parse each word. 

1. James has lost his book. 

2. You have torn my hat. 

3. I have learned my lesson. 

4. They knew their lessons. 

5. We understood your explanation. 



THE ADJECTIVE 47 

Parsing. — His is a pronoun. A pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

His is added, in the diagram, as an adjiuict word. 

Give a general talk about the lesson. 



LESSON XXVII 
THE ADJECTIVE 

1. I have an apple. 

2. I have a large, mellow, sweet apple. 

3. I am sick. 

4. Three men are on the upper floor. 

In 1, apple is the name of a kind of fruit; but we do not 
know the quality of the apple from the statement here 
given. 

In 2, large is used to express the size of the apple, mel- 
low, the condition of the apple, and sweet, the flavor of the 
apple. These words large, mellow, and sweet each express 
some quahty of the apple. 

In 3, sick is used to express the condition which I am in. 

In 4, three is used to tell the number of men, and uyyer 
is used to express the position of the floor. 

These words large, mellow, sweet, sick, three, upper, are 
called adjectives, and may be classed under the general 
term quality. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or a pronoun and 
generally expresses quality; as, '* A wise man." "A new 
book." " You two are diligent." 

Copy the following sentences and draw a line under each 
adjective : 

1. The old barn was rebuilt. 

2. That little, dilapidated old wooden building was rebuilt. 



48 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

3. The full moon sheds a soft pale light on the earth. 

4. The hot sun wilts the young plants. 

5. The bright gorgeous autumn leaves have fallen. 

6. The swift golden hours of childhood are passing away. 

7. An industrious pupil is sure to have good lessons. 

8. Large elms shaded this beautiful street. 

9. "Dear, patient, gentle Xell was dead." 

10. " The old oaken bucket hangs in the well." 

11. " Blooming spring unbends the brow 

Of surly, savage winter." 

12. "A dewy freshness fills the silent air." 

Put into diagram and analyze the following sentences; 
also tell the part of speech of each word. 

1. My old sled was broken. 

2. The brave old soldier received a severe wound. 

3. April showers bring May flowers. 

4. I have a large, red, mellow, sweet apple. 

5. James has three large, yellow, ripe peaches. 

6. Henry has a fine little spotted dog. 

Write sentences each of which will contain one or more 
of the following words used as adjectives : 

Good, bad, outer, inner, western, beautiful, compact, abimdant, 
sour, bitter, slovenly, disinterested, disconnected, ready, willing, 
mellow, scornful, abstract. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is an adjective? 2. To what do adjectives relate? 
3. Is an adjective one of the principal parts or an adjunct in 
a sentence? 4. What is an adjunct? 5. "VMiat is the differ- 
ence between an adjective and a pronoun? 

Note. — In analysis, such words as his, her, mn, mine, our, their, etc., 
are called adjuncts the same as adjectives; but in addition they also 
denote possession, and that is their principal office usually; as, his hat 
is new. Here hia denotes possession or ownership and is a pronoun. 
Adjectives generally express quahty only. 



THE PREPOSITION 49 

LESSON XXVIII 
THE PREPOSITION 

1. James went to New York on Wednesday. 

2. The book lies hejore me on the table. 

3. The boy stood on the floor %n the library, near the desk, under 
the lamp, with a book in his hand. 

In 1, to expresses a relation between went and New 
York, and on, between went and Wednesday. 

In 2, before expresses a relation between lies and me; 
on, between lies and table. 

In 3, on expresses a relation between stood and floor; 
in, between stood and library; near, between stood and 
desk; under, between stood and lamp; with, between 
stood and book; and in, between book and hand. 

The nomi or pronoun before which a preposition is 
placed is called its object. Thus, in 2, table is the object 
of the preposition on. 

A preposition with its object is called a phrase. 

A sentence is often called a proposition, because it 
always contains a subject and a predicate. 

A phrase is a combination of two or more words used 
to express some relation of ideas, but not an entire proposi- 
tion; as, "He is a man of good habits," "The book lies 
on the table." 

Preposition is from prae, meaning before, and positus, a placing. 

A preposition is a word used to express some relation of 
different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally 
placed before a noun or pronoun; as, "The book lies be- 
fore me on the desk." 

A preposition is generally a part of a i^hrase, but a sim- 
ple phrase is never a sentence. 



50 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Copy the following sentences and draw a line under each 
preposition: 

1. The old ehn tree stood in the yard by the side of the walk. 

2. The roof of the house leaks. 

3. Charles jjut his money into the bank. 

4. The trees in the garden are loaded with fruit. 

5. An old crow sat on the limb of an old oak tree. 

6. The first word of every distinct sentence should begin with a 
capital. 

7. Albany, the capital of the State of New York, is situated on 
the Hudson River. 

8. The relations between words are expressed by prepositions. 
Copy the following sentences, and supply suitable prep- 
ositions in place of the blanks : 

1. The visitors passed out the gate. 

2. While sea we hopefully look land. 

3. A pin a head is not fit use. 

4. I passed a man and a boy my way the vil- 
lage. 

5. The squirrel ran the tree and out a limb. 

6. Henry is the library a book his hand. 

7. All names persons and places should begin 

capitals. 

8. Grandpa walks a cane — — his hand. 

9. Henry went his mother the cars the 

city. 

10. James went New York Philadelphia 

Monday. 

11. two mountains lies a fertile valley. 

12. The Gulf stream may be traced the shores of the 

United States the blueness the water. 

13. Coal all kinds has originated the decay 

plants. 

Put the following sentences into diagram, give an analysis 
of each, and tell the parts of speech: 

1. James cut his finger with his knife. 

2. Tlie chanticleer is crowing in the yard. 



THE PREPOSITION 51 

3. That little boy with blue eyes has lost his hat. 

4. The snowstorm came from the east. 

5. This class is composed of real active students. 

6. The boy stood on the burning deck. 

7. Mary studies her lessons at home. 

8. The light streamed through the western window. 

9. Shepherds watched their flocks by night. 
10. The general rode upon a spirited black horse. 
Diagram : 

James / — ^ cut 



with _ I finger 
knife 



^^ 



A? ^7 

y7 / 

I This character denotes the preposition and its object. 

Write sentences each of which will contain one or more 
of the following words used as prepositions : 

On, in, over, around, under, above, below, beneath, between, 
behind, against, into, by, beyond, at, to, towards, underneath. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISE 

towards the tree, 
over the tree, 
around the tree. 
The bird flew- from the tree, 
by the tree, 
above the tree. 
I into the tree. 

In the same manner expand the following statements, or 
form as many sentences as you can from them : 

1. The book lies. 4. The tree stood. 

2. The dog ran. 5. The boy was. 

3. The man talked. G. The squirrel ran. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a preposition? 2. Of what is the word prepo- 
sition composed? 3. For what is a preposition used? 4. 



52 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

What is a phrase? 5. What name is given to a preposition 
and its object? 6. What is the difference between a phrase 
and a sentence? 7. Give a general talk about the prepo- 
sition. 

Write about the preposition as you talked about it. 



LESSON XXIX 
THE ADVERB 

1. James came here very early. 

2. He goes to school now. 

3. He studies his lessons carefully, and he learns them well. 

4. James is a very good boy at school. 

5. I saw James running rapidly down the hill. 

In 1, here is used to tell the place to which James came, 
early is used to tell the time when he came, and very is used 
to tell how early or the degree of earliness. In 2, now is 
used to tell when the boys go to school. In 3, carefully 
and well tell the manner in which he learns his lessons. 
In 4, good is added to boy to express quaUty, but very 
is used to tell how good or the degree of goodness of the 
boy ; and at school is a phrase used to tell the place where 
the boy is good. In 5, rapidly tells how James ran, and 
the phrase down the hill, tells w'here he ran. 

These w^ords used to express time, place, degree, and 
rnanner are called adverbs. Phrases used like adverbs are 
called adverbial phrases. In the sentence, ' ' The boy stood 
on the burning deck," on the burning deck tells where he 
stood, and is, therefore, an adverbial phrase. 

Sometimes a phrase may be used instead of a single 
word: as, 



THE ADVERB 53 

1. He did the work immediately — a Avord. 

2. He did the work without any delay — a phrase. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or another adverb and generally expresses time, 
place, degree, or manner; as, "He talked while here very 
excitedly." " He stood looking earnestly at the pictures." 
"He is a very candid man." "I saw the man walking 
rapidly." 

Copy the following sentences and draw a line under each 
adverb, and each adverbial phrase: 

1. The flowers soon fade in the fall of the year. 

2. The boys ran away quickly. 

3. He acted very strangely and foolishly. 

4. The old man walked very slowly and carefully down the hill. 

5. I shall go to New York City in a few days. 

6. These apples are very sweet. 

7. He leaned heavily upon my arm. 

8. He spoke forcibly and eloquently. 

9. He went to his home yesterday, immediately after dinner. 
Copy the following sentences, and supply a suitable adverb 

in the place of each dash: 

1. That young lady dresses . 

2. The doctor performed a ■ difficult operation. 

3. The fire burns in the grate . 

4. He spoke and . 



5. The horse looked and ran . 

6. few persons are happj'. 

7. We must win or . 

Put the following sentences into diagram and tell the parts 
of speech of each word: 

1. The old eagle flew exceedingly high. 

2. The fire burns cheerily in the grate to-night. 

3. No season of life should be spent in idleness. 

4. An unusuall)^ large crop has boon gathered. 

5. "Slowly and sadly wc laid him down." 

G. Little birds are singing merrily in the trees. 



54 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



7. "Air is composed chiefly of two invisible 

8. The heavenly bodies are always in motion 

9. The work was done very rapidly. 
10. I am well acquainted with the boy. 
Example: 1. 



eagle 



flew 




Note. — In 2, to-night is a compound word used as an adjunct of 

burns. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is an adverb? 2. When are phrases called adverbial 
phrases? 3. Give a sentence in which an adverb relates to 
an adjective. 4. What is the difference in the use of an 
adjective and an adverb? 5. What is a compound word? 
6. Mention one in the exercise for analysis. 7. Give a gen- 
eral talk about the adverb and follow with a written paper. 



LESSON XXX 
THE PARTICIPLE 

1. James stood on the walk, pointed his finger upward and said, 
"See Old Glory float in the breeze!" 

2. James, standing on the walk with his finger pointed upward 
said, " See Old Glory floating in the breeze ! " 

3. I saw the children run, jump, and play on the green, and 
heard them laugh, talk, and shout. 

4. I saw the children running, jumping, and playing on the 
green, and heard them laughing, talking, and shouting. 

5. The boy is fond of reading history. 

In 1, stood, pointed and said arc used to denote what 



THE PARTICIPLE 55 

James did; and float denotes what Old Glory or the 
flag is doing. These words by use are verbs. In 2, 
standing and 'pointing are used like a verb, to de- 
note action, and they also relate, like an adjective, to 
James. They, therefore, perform the office of two parts 
of speech at the same time; that is, of a verb and an adjec- 
tive, and are therefore called participles. Floating denotes 
the action and situation of Old Glory and is also called a 
participle. The two words James stood make an assertion; 
but the two words James standing, do not make an asser- 
tion, consequently standing is not a verb. In 3, run, 
jump, shout, laugh, and talk denote what children do. In 
4, running, jumping, shouting, laughing, and talking 
resemble adjectives in relating to children; and they also 
express action hke a verb. They are called participles. 
In 5, reading is used as the name of an action like a noun, 
and is the object of the preposition of; it also denotes ac- 
tion like a verb, and history is the object. It therefore 
partakes of the properties of a noun and a verb, and is 
called a participle. 

A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating 
the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun ; as, 
" I saw the boy eating apples." " The boy is fond of 
playing ball." 

The participle also performs the office of two parts of 
speech. 

In the sentence James stands on the walk, an assertion 
is made; but in James standing on the walk, no assertion 
is made. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Copy tlio following scntoncos and draw a lino inidcr c:\vh 
participle : 



56 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

I. Verb and Adjective. 

1. My friend having jailed, became poor. 

2. John having been -promoted, entered the next class. 

3. Arnold, despised by all, left the country. 

4. "Truth crushed to earth will rise again." 

5. A large ship sailing on the ocean is a beautiful sight. 

II, Verb and Noun, 

1. He delighted in doing mischief, 

2. He was satisfied with having done his duty, 

3. She took pleasure in being called amiable. 

4. Doing good was her chief occupation. 

5. Henry is fond of playijig marbles. 

Participles are derived from verbs as follows: 

Verbs. 

Love — loving, loved, having loved. 

Walk — walking, walked, having walked. 

Kill — killing, killed, having killed. 

Go — going, gone, having gone. 

Write — ^vl•iting, Avritten, having written. 

Copy the following sentences, draw a line under each par- 
ticiple, and in recitation tell whether it is used as a verb and 
a noun or as a verb and an adjective. 

L Edgar, while splitting wood, cut his foot. 

2. Your letter, written yesterday, Avas not mailed. 

3. James is fond of riding on his wheel. 

4. Disobeying his parents, John went to the jDond. 

5. The farm hands were engaged in cutting corn. 

6. A horse trotting is not necessarily a trotting horse. 

7. Playing ball is fine sport for the older boys. 

8. Alice is fond of playing the piano and painting pictures. 

9. Susie took pleasure in being called amiable. 

Put the following sentences into diagram and tell the parts 
of speech of each word : 

1. I saw the horse running down the street, 

2. The boy stood on the piazza waving a flag. 



THE PARTICIPLE 57 



3. He stood on deck leaning his head on his hand. 

4. James Avhile skatins; fell on the ice. 



Truth r^ will 




This character denotes the participle. 
QUESTIONS 

1. What is a participle? 2. What parts of speech does 
each participle represent? 3. Can you give an illustration 
of the difference between a participle and a verb? 4. What 
is the difference between an adjective and a participle? 
5. Tell what you know about the participles. 



LESSON XXXI 
THE COISnUNCTION 

1. James and John go to school. 

2. Henry saws wood. 3. William splits it. 

4. Henry saws wood, and William splits it. 

5. The pupils read. 6. The pupils write. 7. Tlio pujiils cipher. 

8. The pupils read and write and cipher. 

9. The pupils read, write, and ciplun-. 

In 1, and is used to connect the words James and John 
and to show the dependence of those two words uinni the 
word go; that is, to denote thjit hoih. go to school and that 
.lames and John taken together are the subject of go. Go 
is used in reference to two persons. We might say James 
goes to school, John goes to scho(^l. Cioes would then be 
used in rel'enMUM^ to nuc p(M-soii in eacli siMiteiicc. 

Sentences 2 and 'A are each called sinijile s(Mit<Mices; but 



58 FIRST LESSONS IX LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

when the}' are connected by and, as in sentence 4, they 
form what is called a compound sentence, and the word 
and is then said to connect sentences. 

Sentences 5, 6, and 7 are connected to form sentence 8, 
which expresses what is stated in the three sentences ; and 
is used to connect the three words, read, write, and cipher. 

In sentence 9, a comma is used between read and write 
and another between write and and, the and being omitted 
between read and write. 

Three or more words of the same class, forming a series, 
should be separated by commas. 

The simple parts of a compound sentence should be 
separated by a comma; as in 4. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sen- 
tences in construction, and to show the dependence of the 
terms so connected ; as, " William and James study gram- 
mar." " The sun shines during the day, but the moon 
shines at night." " The sun, moon, and stars are called 
the heavenly bodies." "Actions, looks, words, and steps 
form the alphabet of character." *< We cannot thrive, 
unless we are industrious." 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Copy the followinfr sentences, and draw a line under each 
conjunction. In class exercise, tell what each conjunction 
connects. 

1. Days, months, and years ghde rapidly away. 

2. Truth always endures, but falsehood perishes. 

3. Time and tide wait for no man. 

4. We shall improve if we study. 

5. Gold and silver are called precious metals. 

6. Judson or Jeremiah is to blame. 

7. A pupil should be earnest, attentive, and diligent. 

8. A brave, prudent, and honorable man was chosen for colonel. 

9. Henry is a good boy both at home and at school. 



THE CONJUNCTION 



59 



Copy the following sentences and supply conjunctions in 
the place of blanks : 

1. Cherish love unity, they are the source of all 

true happiness. 



I will go you Avill go with me. 

Columbus believed the earth is round. 

We love home — 



— it be ever so homely. 

Lead is heavier iron. 

Peaches, pears, apples are delicious fruits. 

James is older Paul. 



7. I think 

8. They listened 

9. Minnie 



they did not hear him. 

Julia will go you will stay here. 

Diagram the following sentences and tell the parts of speech : 

1, The bell rang and the train moved on. 

2. Man proposes, but God disposes. 
Examples : 1 

bell r-s ^^°g " 



and 



train 



J"^ 



moved 



trees 



'^> aM 

I 
bushes 



■# 



.r^. 



were covered 



with 



frost 



3. We shall meet again, hut wo sliall miss liiin. 

4. The trees and the bushes were covered with hoar frost. 



60 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

5. I will not go unless you accompany me. 

6. We love him because he first loved us. 

7. The ship sails swiftly along, though the waves beat against 
her. 

1. What is a conjunction? 2. How should three or more 
words forming a series be separated? 3. What point should 
be used to separate two clauses connected by a conjunction? 
4. Where two clauses are connected by a conjunction what 
kind of sentence is formed? 5. Give a review talk on the 
lesson. 



LESSON XXXII 
■ THE INTERJECTION 

1. Hurrah! hurrah! we have won the game. 

2. Pshaw! how ridiculous that is! 

3. Alas! alas! my poor bird is dead! 

In 1, Hurrah is used as an exclamation of delight or 
pleasure, and the sentence, ''We have won the game," 
expresses an emotion of earnestness and joy. 

The exclamation point (!) is placed after words or 
sentences used as exclamations. 

In 2, pshaiv expresses an exclamation of contempt, and 
the sentence emphasizes that feeling. 

In 3, the words Alas! alas! and the sentence My poor 
bird is dead ! each expresses an emotion of sorrow. 

Such words as are used to express strong or sudden 
emotions are called interjections. An exclamation point 
is placed after such words, or after a sentence when it is 
uttered in the form of an exclamation of surprise, wonder, 
or strong emotion of any kind. 

An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to express 



REVIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 61 

some strong or sudden emotion; as, Oh! pshaw! hurrah! 
alas! 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Copy the following sentences, and tell which words are 
used as interjections; also, tell the exclamatory sentences. 

1. Oh! how black that cloud looks ! 2. What! will you not go 
with us? 3. Olook! there are tliree young robins in the nest. 4. 
Caw! Caw! said the old crow. 5. Hush! keep quiet. 6. Ha! 
ha! do you think you can catch me? 7. Oh, give me back my 
early days ! 8. Good-bye ! 9. Wait ! do not go yet. 

10. " Charge, Chester, charge ! On, Stanlej^, on! 

Were the last words of Marmion." 

The pupil should understand that frequently the sub- 
ject of the sentence is not placed before the verb; as, 
Caw! caw! said the old crow. Transposed, the sentence 
will read, The old crow said, caw! caw! 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is an interjection? 2. What point is placed after 
a word used as an interjection? 3. What point is used after 
an exclamatory sentence? 4. Is the subject always placed 
before the verb? 5. Give an example when it is not. 6. Give 
a talk, on the interjection. 



LESSON XXXIII 

REVIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Below arc i^ivcn tlic definitions of the Parts of SpcMM-li. 
The various uses of every word in tlie Eii<:;lis]i langua.iio 
may be classed under the ten heads called Parts of S{)eo('h. 
Some words signify names; some, actions; some, qualities; 
some, relations; some, some manner of action; some, con- 



62 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

nection; some simply point out words; some represent 
words; some represent the uses of two parts of speech at 
the same time; and some are used simply as exclamations. 

In studying a sentence, the pupil should first consider 
the parts of the sentence called Analysis, then the use of 
each word in a sentence. 

An article is the word the, an, or a which we put before 
nouns to limit their signification; as, The boy, the boys; 
an ox, an apple, a boy, a box. 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, 
Henry, (ipide, truth, river, mountain, tree, animal. 

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun and 
generally expresses quality; as, " A good boy." " An honest 
man." ^^ Ajine, lart/e, sweet apple," 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, " The 
boy has long lessons, and he learns them well." " He loves 
his book." 

A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted 
upon; as, I a)n^ I rule, I (un ruled; I love, thou lovest, he 
loves. 

A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating 
the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; 
and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 
Thus, from the verb rule are formed three participles, two 
simple and one compound; as, i, ruling; 2, ruled; 3, having 
ruled. Examples: ''I saw the hoy running down the 
street." " The boy is fond of eating apples." 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb, and generally expresses time, 
place, degree, or manner; as, "The boys are now here 
studying very diligentlij.''^ "John has a vqvij large apple." 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sen- 
tences in construction, and to show the dependence of the 
terms so connected; as, " You and John are happy because 



EXPANSION OF SENTENCES 63 

you are good." "James and Henry will go." " Mary or 
Ellen will remain here." 

A preposition is a word used to express some relation of 
different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally 
placed before a noun or a pronoun ; as, " The paper lies 
before me ow the desk." " The boy stood on the piazza 
watching the children at play in the yard." 

An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indi- 
cate some strong or sudden emotion; as. Oh! alas! ah! 
pshaw ! 

WRITTEN REVIEW 

1. Write the definitions of the parts of speech and the 
illustrations; and observe the punctuation points. 2. In the 
class, repeat the definitions, and give examples to illustrate 
the use of each definition. The pupil should give other ex- 
amples than the ones in the book. 



LESSON XXXIV 

EXPANSION OF SENTENCES WITH ANALYSIS AND 
PARSING 

1. Boys study. 

2. Birds sing. 

3. Trees grow. 

4. The bird is singing. 

5. The dog is barking. 

6. The boy has been reading a book. 

7. The ship sailed. 

8. The canary bird sings. 

9. The lion roars. 

10. The fox caught a hen. 

11. The crow flies. 

12. The stars twinkle. 

13. The sun shines. 



64 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

In 1, Botjs study ma}^ be expanded into a longer sentence; 
thus, These industrious httle boys study their lessons very 
carefully at night. 

Put this sentence into diagram. 

ORAL AND WRITTEN ANALYSIS 

This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject noun is bo7js, and 
the adjuncts are these, industrious, and little; the predicate verb is 
study, and the adjuncts are carefidly with the adjunct very, and the 
phrase at night, night being the principal word in the phrase; the 
object is lessons and the adjunct is their. 

PARSING 

These is used to describe a particular class of boys, and is an adjec- 
tive. 

Industrious is used to express the habits of the boys in regard to 
study, and is an adjective. 

Little is used to describe the size of the boys, and is an adjective. 

Boys is the name of a class of persons, and is a noun. 

Study is used to denote what boys do, and is a verb. 

Their is used instead of the noun ])oys, and is a pronoun. 

Lessons is the name of what the boys study, and is a noun. 

Very is used to denote how carefully the boys study, and is an adverb. 

Carefidly is used to denote how the boys studj^, and is an ad^•erb. 

At is used to express a relation between study and night, and is a 
preposition. 

Night is used as the name of a portion of time between sunset and 
sunrise, and is a noun. 

The definition of each term should be given so as to 
make the pupils perfectly familiar with them. By this 
means the application of definitions is more readily made 
and understood. 

In like manner expand, analyze, and parse each of the 
thirteen sentences given. 

Analyze and parse also the following sentences, and give 
as fully as you can the particular use of each word : 

1. A diligent pujiil always makes rapid improvement. 

2. The full moon sheds a soft, pale light. 



ARTICLES 65 

3. That beautiful red rose grew in my garden. 

4. Many idle jiupils waste their time in plaj'. 

5. "The snow-white summits of the mountains tower upward 
into the blue sky." 

6. The little birds are singing sweetly in the groves. 

7. A blue-eyed, curly-headed, laughing boy was holding a large 
red apple in his hand. 

8. "The little busy bee gathers honey diligently from the open 
flowers." 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by expansion of sentences? 2. What 
is oral analysis? 3. What is a compound word? 4. What 
is a phrase? 5. What kind of phrase is used in the first 
sentence at the beginning of the lesson? 6. Tell what you 
can about this lesson. 



CLASSES AND MODIFICATIONS OF 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

LESSON XXXV 

ARTICLES 

1. A peach, a pear, an apple, or an orange is very delicious. 

2. The boys in the advanced class took a sail on the lake. 

The words in italics used in the sentences given are called 

ARTICLES. 

A is used before words l)eii;innini!; willi a coxs(^\.\xt 
SOUND, and always denotes one thing of a kind, but not 
MORE than one; as, A man, a horse, a wonder, a one, 
a yew, a use, a ewer. 

An is used before words begiiming with a vowki. soind, 
and also denotes one thing ov a kind; as, .l/( art, an end, 
an heir, an inch, an ounce, an liour, (/// urn. 



66 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

The is used to denote some particular thing, or things; 
as, The house on the hill ; the boys on the pond. 

For this reason articles are classed as definite and 
indefinite. The is called the definite article, and 
A or AN the indefinite article. 

An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before 
a noun to limit its signification. 

The definite article is the, which denotes some particu- 
lar thing, or things; as, " The boy" ; " the oranges." 

The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing 
of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, " A boy " ; "an 
orange." 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is an article? a definite article? an indefinite 
article? 2. Before words beginning with what sound is a 
used? is an used? is the used? 3. Why is a or an called the 
indefinite article? 

Write sentences each of which shall contain one of the 
following words with an article before it : 

Apple, house, eagle, hour, man, watch, onion, union, yoke, 
heir, hero, elm. 

Write such sentences that each will contain one of the fol- 
lowing expressions with an article before it: 

Honest man, hour-glass, useful thing, very fine day, unusu- 
ally good time. 

Tell what you know about this lesson. • 

Describe in writing the articles and their classes. 



NOUNS— CLASSES 67 

LESSON XXXVI 

NOUNS-CLASSES 

1. Adam, Charles, Henry, and Philip are the names of individual 
persons. 

2. The Britons, the Scotclimen, the Americans, are the names of 
particular classes of people who live in different parts of the world. 

3. The Bahamas, the West Indies, the Philippines, are the names 
of particular groups of islands. 

4. The Apennines, the Alleghanies, the Sierra Madre, are the 
names of particular ranges or groups of mountains. 

5. Pike's Peak, Mount Mitchell, Mt. Popocatepetl, are the names 
of individual mountains. 

6. Hudson River, Connecticut River, Mississippi River, are the 
names of individual rivers. 

The names given in the six sentences are names of par- 
ticular individuals, persons, places, rivers, and mountains; 
also of classes of people, of groups of islands, and ranges 
of mountains. All these names are proper names, and 
are called proper nouns. 

A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, 
or people, or group; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the 
Azores, the Romans, the Alps. (See proper names in 
Lesson VI, all of which are proper nouns.) 

1. Beech, birch, maple, hemlock, and liickonj are the 
names of different classes of trees. 

2. Buckwheat, corn, potatoes, miUct, and rye are raised 
on the farm. 

3. The fanner sorts his potatoes. The jirintcM- sorts 
his type. Some sorts are ])(^tt(M- than others. 

All words used as n.vmks that are not particular names 
are classc^l as commox xorxs. 

A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of 



6S FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

beings or things; as, persons, children, creatures, beast, 
bird, fish, insect, sound, roses. 

Some nouns are classed as collective, abstract, and ver- 
bal or participial nouns. 

A collective noun is the name of many individuals to- 
gether; as, council, committee, meeting. 

An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality 
considered apart from its substance; as, goodness from 
good; hardness from hard; ^^/wV^e from proud, fruUtij 
from frail. 

A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action 
or state of being; as, "The triumphing of the wicked is 
short; " " Walking is a good exercise." 

Write sentences each of which will contain one of the fol- 
lowing words used as a noun, and tell the class to which 
the noun belongs: 

Henry, James, Mary, Austrians, Italians, Aleutian Islands, 
Mozambique Channel, New York Bay, Cape Charles, Rocky 
Mountains, The Adirondacks, Gettysburg, chalk, pine, music, 
painting, committee, reading, walking, honesty, goodness, truth- 
fulness. 

Classify the nouns in the following sentences, and toll the 
class to which each belongs. 

1. John's son went to Chicago last week. 

2. The Epworth League convention was liold in San Francisco, 
Cal., in July, 1901. 

3. Cain showed the hardness of his heart in the killing of his 
brother Abel. 

4. The Mississippi is the longest river in the world. 

5. Reading, writing, and arithmetic are fundamental studies. 

6. Trenton, the capital of New Jersey, is situated on the Dela- 
ware River. 

7. Rudeness of manners denotes a lack of culture. 

8. His peevishness made him an unpleasant companion. 

9. Longfellow, the American poet, WTote Evangeline. 
10. The council held a meeting in Music Hall. 



MODIFICATIONS— PERSONS AND NUMBERS 69 

11. He heard the puffing of the engine and the rumbling of the 
wheels before the train came around the curve. 

12. The Hudson River was discovered by Henry Hudson. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a proper noun? a common noun? 2. What 
is a collective noun? an abstract noun? a verbal noun? 
3. How do you distinguish between a proper noun and a 
common noun? 4. Under the head of common nouns are 
three particular classes of nouns; what are they called? 5. 
Give a review of the classes of nouns. 



LESSON XXXVII 
MODinCATlONS— PERSONS AND NUMBERS 

1. The bird flies. The birds fly. 

2. John has a sheep and a pony. 

3. There is a flock of sheep in the lot. 

In 1, bird denotes only one; but s added to bird forms 
birds, which means more than one. 

In 2, sheep denotes only one; but in 3, sheep denotes 
a number of animals. 

Such changes in the form or in the use of Avords are 
called modifications. 

Modification is a change in the form or the use of a 
word. 

A change in the form of a word is called an inflection. 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, Per- 
sons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

PERSONS 

A person may be speaking, he may be spoken to, or he 
may be spoken of. The forms showing these modifica- 



70 FIRST LESSONS IX LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

tions are called, respectively, first person, second per- 
son, ami Tin HI) IMORSON. 

Persons in grammar are modifications that distinguish 
the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely 
spoken of. 

There are three persons; the first, the second, and the 
third. 

The first person is that which denotes the speaker or 
writer; as, '- 1 I^ohI, have written it."^ 

The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or 
the person addressed; as, ''JRohert, who did this? " 

The third person is that which denotes the person or thing 
merely spoken of; as, "James loves his booh." 

Observation. — -The speaker seldom refers to himself by name as 
the speaker; consequently nouns are rarely used in the first person, 

QUESTIONS 

1. "Wliat are modifications? 2. What are inflections? 
3. What are persons in grammar? 4. How many persons 
are there, and what are they? 5. What is the first person? 
the second person? the third person? 6. Give an example 
of the use of each person. 7. In what person is a noun seldom 
used? Wliy? 

Write a sentence containing a noun in the first person'. 

Write five sentences each containing a noun in the second 

PERSON. 

Write five sentences each containing a noun in the third 

PERSON. 



LESSON XXXVIII 
NUMBERS 

1. Pen denotes one thing. Pe?i.s denote more than one. 

2. A box of pens; boxes of pens. 

3. Page, pages, fox, foxes. 



NUMBERS 71 

Any SINGLE THING is said in grammar to be in the sin- 
gular nUxMber; as, box, 'pencil, slate, seat, chair, pen. In 
box of pens, box is singular, although it contains many pens ; 
and parcel, handful, bushel, package, are singular, because 
each may contain many things taken together as a unit. 

In 3, 5 added to page forms pages; and es added to 
fox forms foxes. Pages and foxes each means more than 
one, and denote what is called in grammar the plural 

NUMBER. 

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding s or es to the singular; as, book, books; church, 
churches. 

A single thing is called a unit or unity, meaning one. 

Two or more things denote plurality, or more than one. 

Numbers are modifications that distinguish unity and 
plurality. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The singular number is that which denotes but one ; as, 
"The boij learns." 

The plural number is that which denotes more than one ; 
as, "The boi/s run." 

HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL FROM THE SINGULAR 

1. When a singular noun ends in a sound Avhich will unite with 
that of s, the plural generally is formed by adding s only, and the 
number of syllables is not increased; as, pen, pens; grape, grapes; 
hoy, boys; slate, slates. 

2. But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the 
primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to all other ter- 
minations, and forms a separate syllable ; as, 



page, 


pages; 


fox, 


foxes ; 


cage, 


cages; 


box, 


boxes; 


rage, 


rages; 


catch. 


catches. 



72 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add es, but do not 
increase their syllables; as, 

motto, mottoes; hero, heroes; 

grotto, grottoes; potato, potatoes. 

Other nouns ending in o add s only; as, 

folio, folios; cameo, cameos. 

4. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into i 
and add es without increase of syllables; as, 

fly, flies; duty, duties; 

variety, varieties; policy, policies. 

Other nouns in y add s only; as, 

day, days; valley, valleys; 

play, plays; alley, alleys. 

5. The following nouns in /, change / into v, and add cs for the 
plural; as, 

sheaf, sheaves; leaf, leaves; 

loaf, loaves; beef, beeves; 

thief, thieves; calf, calves; 

elf, elves; shelf, shelves; 

self, selves; wolf, wolves; 

wharf, wharves. 
Life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives, are similar. 

6. The greater number of nouns in / and /e are regular; as, 
fife, fifes; grief, griefs; 
chief, chiefs; reef, reefs; 
gulf, gulfs; roof, roofs. 

7. Many foreign nouns retain their original plural ; as, 
arcanum, arcana; radius, radii; 
vortex,. vortices; axis, axes; 
phenomenon, phenomena; seraph, seraphim; 
datum, data. 

8. The following are very irregular: 

man, men; woman, women; 

child, children; brother, brethren [brothers] ; 

foot, feet; ox, oxen; 

tooth, teeth; goose, geese; 



swine, 


swine; 


hose, 


means, 


means; 


odds. 


species. 


species; 


seriei 



NUMBERS 73 

louse, lice; mouse, mice; 

Dies (stamps) and pennies (coins) are regular. 

9. Some words are alike in both numbers ; as, 
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

sheep, sheep; deer, deer; 

hose; 

odds; 

series; 
apparatus, apparatus. 

10. Compounds in which the principal word is put first vary 
the principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form 
the possessive case; as. 

Singular. Plural. Possessive Case. 

father-in-law, fathers-in-law, father-in-law 's. 

11. Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the principal 
word is put last,- form the plural in the same manner as other 
nouns; as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

handful, handfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls; 

mouthful, mouthfuls; pailful, pailfuls; 

fellow-servant, fellow-servants; man-servant, man-servants. 

12. Nouns of multitude, when taken coUectivelj^, admit the 
plural form; as, 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

meeting, meetings; coynmittec, committees. 

When such nouns are taken distributively, they have a plural 
signification without the form; as, The jury were divided. 

Observations. — Some nouns have no plural; as, gold, pride, meek- 
ness. Others have no singular; as, bellows, ides, tidings, scissors, tongs, 
vespers, victuals. 

EXERCISE 

Write the following nouns in the plural number: 

Child, box, tree, mouse, font, tooth, knife, o.r, brother, radius, woman, 
goose, axis, handful, hero, loaf, vortex, basis, cargo, lady, sheep, success, 
meeting, species, die, means, apparatus, phenomenon, brother-in-law. 



74 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

QUESTIONS 

1. What kind of word is father-in-law? 2. What is a noun 
of multitude? 3. In father-in-law which is the principal 
word? Which the adjunct? 4. What is meant by the term 
collectively? distributively? 5. What is a foreign noun? 

Ans. A noun taken from another language without change 
in spelling. 



LESSON XXXIX 
MODinCATIONS. GENDERS 

1. Man, father, son, brother, boy, king. 

2. Woman, mother, daughter, sister, girl, queen. 

3. Book, pen, water, truth, reason, knowledge, gold, 

4. Parents, child, cousin, person, animal. 

Some nouns are used to distinguish persons of the male 
sex, as in 1 ; some to distinguish persons of the female sex, 
as in 2; and some are used to distinguish things that are 
neither male nor female, as in 3; other words may represent 
either sex or both. To all such words is applied the term 

GENDER. 

Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in 
regard to sex. 

The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or 
animals of the male kind ; as, man, father, lion, king. 

The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or 
animals of the female kind; as, woman, mother, queen, 
lioness, cow. 

The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are 
neither male nor female ; as, pen, ink, paper. 

Note. — Some nouns may be applied to either sex; as, cousin, neigh- 
bor, friend, parent, servant. 

Sometimes the gender may be determined by the context; that is, 
by the use of other words in the same connection. 



CASES 75 

Example: "My cousin was here yesterday, but she returned home 
last evening." In this sentence she denotes the gender of cousin. 
"Henry's parents hve in the country." "Henry's father and mother 
hve in the country." Here father and mother represent parents. 

The sexes are denoted in three ways : 

1. By the use of different names ; as, bachelor, maid; hoy, girl; 
brother, sister; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen. 

2. By the use of different terminations ; as, abbot, abbess; hero, 
heroine; administrator, administratrix. 

3. By prefixing an attribute of distinction; as, cock-sparrow, 
hen-sparroiv; man-servant, maid-servant; he-goat, she-goat. 

Observations. — The names of things without life, used hterally 
.(according to the primitive use of the word), are always of the neuter 
gender. But inanimate objects (objects without life) are often repre- 
sented figuratively (like a person) as having sex. Things remarkable 
for power, greatness, or sublimity are spoken of as masculine; as, 
the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, 
amiable, or prolific are spoken of as feminine; as, the moon, earth, 
nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are genders? 2. What is the masculine gender? 
the feminine gender? the neuter gender? 3. Give ^examples 
of words that may represent either gender. 4. Give example 
of a word that may represent both masculine and feminine 
gender. 5. Define termination, attribute, literally, figuratively, 
attribute of distinction, inanimate, primitive ivord, prefixing. 

Note. — This lesson affords a spelling exercise, both oral and written. 



LESSON XL 

CASES 

1. The boy studies. 

2. John's hat is torn. 

3. Birds sing- songs. 

4. Henry recited his lesson to Mary. 

The relation which a noun or a pronoun sustains to some 



76 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

other word is called case. Thus, in 1, hoy is used as the 
subject of studies and is said to be in the nominative case. 

In 2, John's is used to denote possession and is said to 
be in the possessive case. 

In 3, songs is used as the object of sing and is said to be 
in the objective case. 

In 4, Mary is used to denote the person to whom Henry 
recites his lesson and is said to be in the objective case and 
object of the preposition to. 

Cases are modifications that distinguish the relation of 
nouns and pronouns to other words ; as, " Mary gave her 
book to Charles." 

There are three cases: the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective. 

The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 
noun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb; 
as, " The boij runs " ; "J run." 

The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 
noun which usually denotes the relation of property; as, 
" The bot/'s hat " ; " imj hat." 

The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pro- 
noun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, 
or preposition; as, "I know the boij : he knows me." 
" James sat by the windoiv reading a booJi.^^ 

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by 
adding to the nominative s, preceded by an apostrophe; and, in the 
plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only ; 
as, boy, boy's, boys'. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are cases? 2. How many cases are there? 3. 
What is the nominative case? the possessive case? the objec- 
tive case? 4. How is the possessive case of nouns formed 
in the smgular? in the plural? 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 



77 



WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write such sentences that each one will contain one of the 
following words used in the nominative case: Henry, I, we, 
you, they, she, he. 

Write such sentences that each one will contain one of the 
following words used in the possessive case: John's, Sarah's, 
beggar's, boy's, bird's, John Wanamaker's. 

Write such sentences that each one will contain one of the 
following words used in the objective case: Lesson, teacher, 
wood, ax, corn, garden, ball, field. 



LESSON XLI 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS 

The declension of a noun or a pronoun is a regular 
arrangement of its numbers and cases. 

Nouns are dechned as in the following examples: 





EXAMPLE 1 


.-FRIEND 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. friend. 




Nom. friends, 


Poss. friend's, 


Poss. friends' 


Ohj. friend. 




Ohj. friends. 




EXAMPLE 


2.-MAN 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. man, 




Nom. men. 


Poss. man's, 




Poss. men's, 


Ohj. man. 




Ohj. men. 




EXAMPLE 


3. -FOX 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. fox. 




Nom. foxes, 


Poss. fox's. 




Poss. foxes', 


Ohj. fox. 




Ohj. foxes. 



78 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



EXAMPLE 4.-FLY 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn, fly, Nom. flies, 

Poss. fly's, Poss. flies', 

06/. fly. Ohj. flies. 

EXERCISE 

In the same manner write the declension of : 

Goose, sheep, child, mouse, woman, wife, ox, horse, James, 

boy, lady, bird, prince, princess, teacher, scholar, parent, 

farmer. 

EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

Example : A bad boy took the bird's nest. 
boy ,^-^ took 




nest 




./^ 



Analysis. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The suliject is hoy, and the adjuncts of the subject are a and had; the 
predicate is took; and the object is nest; the adjunct of the object is 
hird's, and the adjunct of bird's is the. 

Parsing. — A is the indefinite article and limits the signification of 
ho]j. 

Bad is an adjective, and is added to the noun hoy. 

Boy is a common noun ; of the third person, because it is spoken of ; 
of the singular number, because it denotes but one ; of the masculine 
gender, because it denotes a male; and in the nominative case, because 
it is the subject of the verb took. 

Took is a verb signifying action. 

The is the definite article limiting the signification of the noun hird's. 

Bird's is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
feminine gender (because here it denotes a female bird), and in the 
possessive case, because it denotes the possession of the nest. 

Nest is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender (because it is neither male nor female), and in the objective 
case, because it is the ol)ject of the verb took. 



EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTION 79 

SENTfeNCES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

1. The cat caught a mouse. 

2. The dog ran after the fox. 

3. The cow gives rich milk. 

4. The tree produces much fruit. 

5. The fire destroyed many fine buildings. 

6. The eagle has a piercing eye. 

7. William lost Mary's new book. 

8. How did John break the boy's slate? 

9. Foxes' tails are very long. 

10. The bird's plumage is very beautiful. 

11. Birds' feathers are very light. 

12. The men's work was toilsome. 

13. Csesar made many conquests. 

14. Rome had many great generals. 

15. Washington's character was truly great. 

16. A soldier's life is always perilous. 

Note. — The sentences in the preceding lessons may be used for 
further work in analysis and parsing. 



LESSON XLII 
EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTION 

Construction is the combination of words into sentences. 

Composition is the combination of sentences to express 
thought. 

Write three sentences so that each will contain a noun in 
the nominative case; the possessive case; the objective case. 

Write such sentences that each will contain one or more 
of the following words : 

Man's, farmer's, house, barn, field, ploughing, planting, sowing, 
seed, lakes, rivers, streams, fish, net, Cliarlos, boat, ship, scliool- 
master, loving, kind, teacher, parents, obey, commands, diso- 
bedient, never, Avrong, always, truth, brothers, sisters, beautiful, 
disgraceful, courageous, James's, Charles's, William "s, prince's, 
princess's, brother-in-law's, tablesi^oonfuls. 



80 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Observations. — To avoid the double hissing sound of .s, the posses- 
sive case is sometimes indicated by the apostrophe only, the s being 
omitted; as, Moses' rod; the princess' portrait; for conscience' sake. 
As a rule, however, the s should be used. 

A noun in the possessive case is an adjective adjunct. 
It may be changed into a simple plirase adjunct by using 
the preposition of and the noun in the objective case; as, 
The deer's horns, — equivalent to the horns of the deer. 

Construct a sentence from each of the following, changing 
the phrase form into the possessive, or the possessive into 
the phrase. 

L The cunning of the fox. 

2. The sagacity of the elephants. 

3. The bleating of the sheep. 

4. The diamonds of the princess. 

5. Birds' nests. 

6. The kindness of the lady. 

7. The dresses of the ladies. 

8. The king's authority. 

9. The teacher's efforts. 

10. The patriotism of Washington. 

IL The enterjjrise of Columbus. 

12. The kindness of William Penn. 

13. The telescojDe of Lord Rosse. 

14. The works of Charles Dickens. 

Write three sentences, using the same word in the singular 
and plural, and in the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective case. 

Write three sentences in a similar manner on the following 
subjects: 

Tooth, valley, fox, calf, fly, father-in-law, spoonful, goose, 
child, woman, nephew, niece, empress, governor, governess. 



ADJECTIVES— CLASSES 81 

LESSON XLIII 
ADJECTIVES— CLASSES 

Some ADJECTIVES express quality; as, a large, red, sweet 
apple; some situation; as, the upper floor, the front piazza. 
Such are called common adjectives. 

A common adjective is any ordinary adjective or epithet 
denoting quality or situation ; as, good, bad, peaceful, war- 
like, eastern, western, outer, inner. 

Some adjectives are formed from proper names; as, 
ItaHan, from Italy; French, from France; Scotch, from 
Scotland; Roman, from Rome; Chihan, from Chih; Jap- 
anese, from Japan ; Mexican, from Mexico. 

A proper adjective is one derived from a proper name; 
as, American, from America ; English, from England ; Pla- 
tonic, from Plato. 

Sometimes an adjective expresses a definite number; 
as, three apples; four boys; six pencils. Such are called 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite 
number; as, one, two, three, four, five, six, etc. 

Numeral adjectives are of three kinds; namely, 

1. Cardinal; as, one, Wo, three, four, five, six, seven, etc. 

2. Ordinal; as, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc. 

3. Multiplicative; as, single or alone, double or twofold, triple or 
threefold, quadruple or fourfold, etc. 

Sometimes an adjective is used to define, or distinguish, 
and not to state quahty of the person or thing referred to. 
Such adjectives may be placed before the nouns to which 
they refer, or represent them understood. Thus: TJiat 
statement is true. That is true. Both persons are guilty. 
Both are guilty. Each person confessed his guilt. Each 



82 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

confessed his guilt. Such are called pronominal adjec- 
tives. 

A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may 
either accompany its noun or represent it understood; as, 
" All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to gain." 

The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: 
All, any, both, each, either, every, few, former, first, latter, 

last, many, neither, none, one, other, same, some, such, this, 

that, which, what. 

Some words have the form of a participle, but do not 
partake of the nature of a verb. They merely describe or 
express quahty; as, a trying position; a trotting horse; 
a frozen river. Such words are called participial adjec- 
tives, 

A participial adjective is one that has the form of a par- 
ticiple, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time ; as, 
"An amusing story." "The winning horse." 

Sometimes words are joined together by a hyphen and 
used as adjectives; as, The star-spangled banner; a long- 
lived family; a well-written composition. Such words 
are called compound adjectives. 

A compound adjective is one that consists of two or more 
words joined together; as, Nut-brown, laughter-loving, 
four-footed. 

Put the following sentences into diagram, tell the parts 
of speech, classify the adjectives, and give the modifications 
of the article and the noun. 

1. Mary lias a bouquet of beautiful, fragrant flowers. 

2. Jane has two little pet kittens. 

3. The farmer has a fine orcliard of thrifty trees. 

4. Four deer have been shot this Aveek. 

5. The little busy bee gathers honey diligently from the open 
flowers. 



ADJECTIVES— MODIFICATIONS 83 

6. A blue-eyed, curly-haired, laughing boy held a large red 
apple in his hand. 

7. Henry went to California by the Southern Pacific Railroad. 

8. The vessel sailed under the Spanish flag. 

9. The man has a high Roman nose. 

iO. These girls have two large ripe pears. 



LESSON XLIV 
ADJECTIVES— MODIFICATIONS 

1. This is a hot day. 

2. This is a hotter day than yesterday. 

3. This is the hottest day so far this summer. 

In 1, the adjective Jiot, in its simple form, expresses a 
quality of day; and in this form the adjective is said to be 
in the positive degree. 

The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjec- 
tive in its simplest form; as, "A siveet apple." "A large 
man." "A/?iieday." 

In 2, the adjective hotter expresses a greater degree of 
heat than hot in 1. In this form the adjective is said to 
be in the comparative degree. 

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the posi- 
tive ; as, " A siveeter apple." " A larger man." ^^ A finer 
day." 

In 3, the adjective hottest expresses the highest degree 
of comparison; and in this form the adjective is said to be 
in the superlative degree; as, The sweetest api)lo; the 
largest man ; the finest day. 

The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded; 
as, hardest, softest, best. 



84 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Some adjectives do not admit of comparison; as, two, 
second, all, total, immortal, infinite. 

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but 
not in form, are compared by means of adverbs; as, skill- 
ful, more skillful, most skillful. 

Diminution of quality is expressed, in like manner, by 
the adverbs less -and least; as, wise, less wise, least wise; 
famous, less famous, least famous. 

Most adjectives of more than one S}- liable must be com- 
pared by means of adverbs, because they do not admit 
a change of termination ; thus, we may say virtuous, more 
^'irtuous, most virtuous; but not virtuouser, virtuousest. 

Adjectives are regularh^ compared when the compara- 
tive degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative 
by adding est to them ; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

great, greater, greatest, 

wide, wider, widest, 

hot, hotter, hottest. 

The method of comparison by er and est is chiefly applic- 
able to monosyllables, and dissyllables ending in y or 
mute e. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: 
Good, better, best; bad or ill, worse, ivorst; Utile, less, least; 
much, more, most; many, more, most; far, farther, farthest; 
late, later, latest or last. 

Observations. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly bo called a 
variation of the adjective. The words may with more propriety be 
taken separately, the degree being ascribed to the ad\'erb, or to each 
word. 

Compare the following adjectives, regularly., irregularly, 
or by means of adverbs as each may require : 

Strong, wise, gentle, noble, famous, useful, fortunate, happy, elegant, 
little, small, many, few, late, oarl)', virtuous, beautiful, narrow, simple. 



THE ATTRIBUTE 



85 



Put the following sentences into diagram, tell the parts of 
speech, and give the modifications of the article, the noun, 
and the comparison of the adjectives. 

1. A truly honest man will observe the golden rule of life. 

2. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

3. The song of the wood-dove has died on our shore. 

4. "A purjDle robe his dying frame shall fold." 

5. The dry leaves are whirled in autumn's rising blast. 

6. A trifling accident often produces great results. 

7. "A flatterer is a most dangerous enemy." 

8. Virtuous youth brings forward flourishing manhood. 

9. Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. 
10. A noble mind scorns a mean action. 

PARSING 
Honest is a common adjective of the positive degree; compared posi- 
tive, honest ; comparative, more honest ; superlative, most honest, and 
relates to man. Give definitions. 



1. A red apple lies on the table, 

2. The apple is red. 

3. Gold is a metal. 



LESSON XLV 
THE ATTRIBUTE 

. New York is a great city. 



apple 




.r^ 



5. It is I. 

6. The sun is shining. 



lies 



table 



K^>y 



apple 



■<$ 



red 



-This character represents tlie attribute. 



86 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 

In 1, the adjective red is an adjunct of the subject and 
relates directly to apple to express quality; while in 2, red 
forms a part of the predicate, and the quality which it 
expresses is attributed to the subject apple through the 
predicate; for this reason it is called, in grammar, an 
attribute of the subject. Other examples may be given; 
as, Sugar is sweet. The melons are ripe. Trees are tall. 
The grass is green. The sky looks blue. 

In 3, metal is attributed to gold, but metal is the name 
of a mineral and is a noun. It describes gold by telhng 
what it is; that is, to what class it belongs; therefore a 
noun may be attributed to the subject. 

In 4, city is attributed to New York to tell what it is, 
and it is called an attribute. 

In 5, the pronoun / is attributed to it to signify its mean- 
ing, and is also called an attribute. 

In 6, shirmig is attributed to sun, yet in this case shining 
is considered a part of the verb ; and in parsing, is shining 
is called the verb. 

Any verb, except the forms of the verb he, contains an 
attribute within itself; as, in the sentence He reads, reads 
is equivalent to is reading. 

An attribute is an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, or a par- 
ticiple used in the predicate but reUtt i ng io the subject; 
as, "Gold is yeUon.^^ "Iron is a mineral,*^ "Chicago is 
a large clfij." "It is /." "The grassis spa rJd in f/ with 
dew " ; is sparkling is called the verb. 

Note. — An attribute, in grammar, is a word which is affirmed of the 
subject or attributed to it through the predicate. Some grammarians 
say such words are predicated of the subject and designate them Predi- 
cate Adjectives, Predicate Pronouns, or Predicate Xou7is; but the term 
attribute, while simpler, is also a better term to use in the analyses of 
sentences for the same reason. The term attribute also denotes the 
different uses of each of such words when used in the predicate from 
its other uses in sentences. 



THE ATTRIBUTE 87 

Put the following sentences into diagram, give an oral 
analysis, tell the parts of speech in each, and give modifica- 
tions as in former lessons. 

Example: Paris is the capital of France. 

Diagram: 



Paris . .-^ 



capital 



Fran'ce 



Analysis : This is a simple declarative sentence. Paris is the sub- 
ject, is is the predicate verb, and capital is the attribute. The adjuncts 
of capital are the and the phrase of France, France being the principal 
word in the phrase. 

PARSJNG 

Capital is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and in the nominative case after the verb is, being used as an 
attribute of the subject. 

Parse the other words as in the preceding lessons. 

1. Gold is a valuable metal. 

2. Washington was a true patriot. 

3. The sky is blue. 

4. Honesty is the best policy. 

5. Strawberries are a delicious fruit. 

6. A dictionary is a very useful book. 

7. The horse is a valuable animal. 

8. The snow is quite deep at the present time. 

9. New York is a great commercial city. 

10. Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United 
States. 

Questions: 1. What is an attribute? 2. What parts of 
speech may be used as an attribute? 3. Which part of speech 
used as an attribute is combined with the verb to make a 
compound form of the verb? 

CASES IN DIFFERENT FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION 

1. It is he. 

2. The boy is eight years old. 



88 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

3. Long Island is a part of the State of New York. 

4. He walked a mile. 

5. Henry played me a trick. 

6. I envy him his good health. 

7. John brought Edward a new pair of skates. 

8. The bo}^ was taught grammar. 

9. Henry, you may write these sentences on the blackboard. 

Remarks. — In 1, he is in the nominative case after the 
verb is, because it is used in the sentence as an attribute 
of it; that is, both words he and it refer to the same thing. 

In 2, the sentence may be written with words supphed 
to express clearly the meaning intended by the writer, 
thus illustrating a principle of grammar; namely, that all 
words necessary to express the sense intended by the writer 
are as much a part of the sentence as if the words were 
written. Example: The boy is old to the extent of eight 
years. 

In 4, there are other words which are necessary to ex- 
press the proper relation of the different words clearly; 
namely, He walked over the distance of a mile. 

In 5, supply on and the sentence will read, Henry played 
a trick on me. 

In 6, I have a feehng of discontent because his health 
is better than mine; therefore, / envy him because he has 
good health. 

In 8, The boy was taught grammar is an idiomatic form 
of construction. Grammar was taught to the boy, is 
the regular form of construction, and is preferable to the 
other form; but the other form is sanctioned by good 
writers; therefore grammarians say that grammar is in 
the objective case. 

The expression is called an idiom of the language. 



THE ATTRIBUTE 89 

An idiom is a mode of expression which is peculiar to a 
particular language. 

Put the nine sentences into diagram in accordance with the 
preceding remarks, tell the parts of speech and the case of each 
noun and pronoun; also diagram, give oral analysis, and parse 
each word in the following sentences: 

butterfly /-^ fl utters 




.r\ 



child 



of 



Sun 



K^>y 



^y 



Note — Child is here used to explain butterfly, and is in the same 
case in apposition to it. 

Apposition is the addition of a word used in the same construction, 
in order to explain a preceding word in a sentence. 

1. Henry, the mail carrier, is late this morning. 

2. Willie, the fat boy, fell on the ice and sprained his ankle. 

3. Harry owes me ten dollars. 

4. Washington is called the Father of his Country. 

5. Henrj^, can you analyze this sentence? 



LESSON XLVI 

Give an analysis of the following simple and compound 
sentences, tell the parts of speech and their modifications so 
far as you have learned them, 

1. Trees are beautiful productions of Nature. 

2. How grand and stately are their forms ! 

3. Willis, study your lesson carefully. 

4. Tell me, William, if you can. 

5. Oh! how wrongly you have acted. 

6. James and Henry study and recite grammar and arithmetic. 



90 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



Note. — Observe the following diagrams, and explain the relations 
of the words to one another. 

forms A-^ are 



•'^} 




/ ^rand 


"f 


/ stately / 


yon 


^ 


^ have acted 








James 




study 


ailid 
John 


O 


and 
redite 






1 










grammar 




and 








arithmetic 



Analyze also the following sentences: 

1. Good books always deserve a careful perusal. 

2. Suddenly acquired wealth rarely brings happiness. 

3. A man of integrity obeys the. dictates of conscience. 

4. Henry and George go to school this winter. 

5. He came home in the spring of the year. 

6. " Virtue is its own reward and vice brings its own punishment.* 

7. He strides along with stateliness and pride. 

8. A golden staff his steps supported. 

9. "Darkly moves each giant bough 

O'er the sky's last crimson glow." 

10. "Nature, with folded hands, seemed there 

Kneeling at her evening prayer," 

11. "Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountains, 

And read their doom in the setting sun." 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS . 91 

12. "His hair falls round his blushing cheek in wreaths of waving 
light." 

13. "Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, 

And betray the half-hidden cottage." 
QUESTIONS 

1. What is an attribute? 2. What verbs contain an attri- 
bute within themselves? 3. How does an attribute differ 
from an object? 4. What part of speech must an attribute 
be to form a part of a compound verb? 

Write sentences each of which will contain one of the follow- 
ing words used as an attribute: 

Sun, moon, sky, ground, orange, penknife, Martha, horse, 
fox, chanticleer, village, blue, chatterbox. 



LESSON XLVII 
CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 

1. / gave the book to the boy, but he has lost it. 

2. Liest thou asleep beneath these hills of snow? 

3. Clara said that she would give the book to Charles. 

4. The boy ivho studies will improve his mind. 

5. The flowers which bloom in the spring are beautiful. 

6. A figure that has three sides is a triangle. 

7. "He that walketh uprightly walketh surely." 

8. He is ashamed of what he has done. 

The five pronouns in the first three sentences, namely, 
/, of the first person; thou, of the second person; he, she, 
and it, of the third person, are called simple personal 
PRONOUNS. Their variations will be given under the 
declension of pronouns. 

A personal pronoun is a pronoun which shows by its 
form of what person it is; that is, the word itself shows 
whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 

My and self united form the compound myself. 



92 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

The compound personal pronouns are also five ; namely, 
myself, of the first person; thyself, of the second person; 
himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. 

A compound personal pronoun is used when the action 
reverts upon the agent; as, "He injured himself; " or for 
special emphasis; as, " He himself is to blame." 

A sentence may contain two clauses, one called the prin- 
cipal clause, and the other the dependent clause, because 
it is related to the principal clause, or is dependent on it ; 
as in sentences 4 to 8. 

In sentence 5, " The flowers are very beautiful " is the 
principal clause ; and " which bloom in the spring " is the 
dependent clause. It is also called a relative clause. The 
word which represents its antecedent, flowers, in the 
principal clause, and is also the subject of bloom in the 
dependent clause; for this reason it is called a RELATIVE 
PRONOUN. 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an ante- 
cedent word or phrase and connects different clauses of a 
sentence. 

The relative pronouns are wlio, tvhich, ivhat, and that; 
and the compounds, whoever or whosoever, whichever, or 
whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 

The person, number, and gender of a relative pronoun 
are the same as those of the antecedent word which it 
represents. 

The words who, which, and ivhat are also used in asking 
fjuestions, and are then called interrogative fronouns; as, 
Who goes there? What did he say? Which will you take? 
Whom did j^ou see? 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a 
question is asked. 

Who is usually appHed to persons only; which, though 
formerly applied to persons, is now confined to brute 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 



93 



animals and inanimate things; what, as a mere pronoun, 
is applied to things only; that is apphed indifferently to 
persons, animals, and things. 

What is sometimes equivalent to an article or an adjec- 
tive and a relative, being placed before the noun which 
it represents; as, ''What money he had was taken away;" 
that is, the money which he had was taken away. 

Observe carefully the following diagrams, and give an 
oral analysis of each; then diagram the other sentences. 



boy ^,-^will improve 



'^f 



V v- 

7 mind 



who f -- ^ studies 



He 



-r^ 



IS 



ashamed 



he 



has done 



of 



what 



He 



j^^ 



ashamed 



of 



that 



he 



j^^ 



has done 



which 



what 



Clara 



said 



that 



she 



.r\ 



w^ould give 



book 



to 
Charles ^/ 



In 3, that she would give tlie book to Charles, is an ob- 
ject clause used in the same manner that a word is used 
as an object. 

Sentence No. 8 has two forms of diagrams given in order 



94 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

that the pupil may see clearly the double office of the word 
what. When understood, the first form is preferable. 

Analysis. 8: He is ashamed of what he has done. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of a principal 
clause and a dependent clause. The subject of the principal clause is 
HE, the predicate verb is is, and the attribute is ashamed, modified by 
the adverbial phrase of that comprehended in the double relative what, 
which is equivalent to that which; that is the principal word in the phrase. 
The subject of the dependent clause is he; the predicate verb is has done, 
and the object is which comprehended in the double relative what. 

Parsing: What is a double relative pronoun; as the object of the 
preposition o/ it is a pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and objective case; as the object of has done it is a 
relative pronoun, representing that or thing which, and is of the third 
person, singular number, neuter gender, and in the objective case, 
being the object of has done. 

In sentence 3, Clara is the subject, said is the predicate verb, and the 
clause she would give the book to Charles, is the object clause. 

The pupil should have no difficulty in giving an oral 
analysis of the other sentences. The eight sentences 
should be put into diagram, analyzed, and each word 
parsed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a personal pronoun? 2. What pronouns are 
in the first, second, and third persons? 3. What are the 
compound personal pronouns? 4. How is each one formed? 
5. What is a relative pronoun? 6. What peculiarity is there 
in the relative what? 7. What are the compound relative 
pronouns? 8. What is an interrogative pronoun? 9. What 
are the interrogatives? 10. What kind of sentence does the 
use of a relative pronoun form? 

Ans. It forms what is called a complex sentence. 



PRONOUNS— MODIFICATIONS AND DECLENSIONS 95 

LESSON XLVIII 
PRONOUNS —MODIFICATIONS AND DECLENSION 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; 
namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

In the personal pronouns most of these properties are 
indicated by the words themselves. Thus / by its form 
denotes the first person, singular number, and nominative 
case, the gender being indicated by its use in the sentence. 
We denotes, by its form, the first person, plural number, 
and nominative case; and its gender is denoted by its use 
in the sentence. 

Each of the other personal pronouns is indicated in the 
same manner. 

EXAMPLES 

1. I wrote answers to all the questions in my lesson, but father 
said, "My boy, you must study your lesson until you can tell all 
about it." 

2. We boys are very much interested in our grammar lessons. 

In 1, the word boy indicates the gender of /, my, you, 
your; and lesson, the gender of it. It, however, is always 
of the neuter gender. 

In 2, the word boys indicates the gender of toe and our. 

For the relative pronoun you should refer to the 
antecedent which it represents. Thus in the sentence, 
The boy who studies will improve, the properties of wlio 
are indicated by the antecedent word boy which it repre- 
sents. 

In the interrogative pronoun, the answer to the ques- 
tion indicates the properties of the pronoun ; as. Who did 
this? (Ans. — John.) Here John indicates the person, 
number, and gender of who. 



96 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS 

The personal pronouns are thus dechned; 
I of the first person. 
Singular. 

Nom. 1, 

Poss. my or mine, 

Ohj. me ; 
Thou of the second person 
Singular. 

Nom. thou, 

Poss. thy, or thine, 

Ohj. thee ; 
He of the third person. 
Singular. 

Nom. he; 

Poss. his, 

Ohj. him ; 
She of the third person. 
Singular. 

Nom. she, 

Poss. her, or hers, 

Obj. her ; 
It of the third person. 
Singular. 

Nom. it, 

Poss. its, 

Ohj. it; 



Plural. 
Norn, we, 
Poss. our, or ours, 
Obj. us. 



. Plural. 
No7n. ye, or you, 
Poss. your, or yours, 
Obj. you. 

Plural. 
Nom. they, 
Poss. their, or theirs, 
Obj. them. 

Plural. 
No7n. they, 
Poss. their, or theirs, 
Obj. them. 



Plural. 
Nom. they, 
Poss. their, or theirs, 
Obj. them. 



The compound personal pronouns all want the posses- 
sive case, and are alike in the nominative and objective 
cases; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. myself, No)n. ourselves, 

Poss. Poss. 

Oh], myself; Obj. ourselves. 



PRONOUNS— MODIFICATIONS AND DECLENSIONS 97 

The relative and interrogative pronouns are thus de- 
clined : 
Who, applied only to persons. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nora, who, Novi. who, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 

Ohj. whom; Ohj. whom. 

Which, applied to animals and things. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. which, Nom. which, 

Poss. Poss. 

Ohj. which; Ohj. which. 

What, generally applied to things. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. what, Nom. what, 

Poss. Poss. — 

Ohj. what; Ohj. what. 

That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. that, Nom. that, 

Poss. Poss. 

Ohj. that; Ohj. that. 

The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, 
whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever 
are declined in the same manner as the simple ones who, 
which, what. 

WRITTEN EXERCISES 

1. Write the nominative ]3lural of the following pronouns: 
/, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that. 

2. Write the declension of the following: Myself, thy- 
self, himself, herself, itself, whosoever. 

3. Write sentences each of which will contain one of the 
following: Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, whose, himself, them- 
selves. 



98 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

4. Write the objective singular and plural of all the simple 
pronouns. 

5. Write sentences each of which will contain one of the 
following pronouns: Him, them, me, myself, who, whom, 
which, what, that, whoever, whomsoever, whichever. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is declension? 2. How do you determine the 
gender of a personal pronoun? 3. How do you determine 
the gender of a relative pronoun? 4. Why is myself called 
a compound personal pronoun? 5. What kind of word is 
himself? Why? 6. Give a review talk of the personal pro- 
nouns; of the relative pronouns. 



LESSON XLIX 
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 

1. Prosperity gains many friends, but adversity tries them. 

2. A boy who is diligent will succeed. 

3. He was there when his father came. 

In 1, there are two simple sentences connected by a 
conjunction; but when so connected, they are called 
clauses, and the sentence is compound. 

In 2, there are two sentences connected by who, bat 
who is also a part of a sentence which relates to the prin- 
cipal sentence; for this reason one is called the principal 
clause, and the other the dependent clause. The whole 
sentence is called complex, and the connective word who 
is called a relative pronoun. 

In 3, when connects two clauses, and, because it also 
expresses time, it is called a conjunctive adverb; and the 
sentence is called complex. 

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or 
more independent clauses ; as, " Times change, and we 
change with them." 



COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 99 

A complex sentence is a sentence composed of a principal 
clause and one or more dependent clauses; as, "The 
man whose conscience is pure needs fear no accusation." 

A clause is a division of a compound or a complex sen- 
tence; as (compound sentence), "The way was long, and 
the wind was cold." (Complex sentence), " He who is in- 
telligent will be intelligible." 

A dependent clause is a clause used as one of the princi- 
pal parts of a sentence, or as an adjunct to any word in it ; 
as, 

1. Principal part. — That vice conduces to misery is 
certain. 

2. Adjunct. — ^The globe on which we live is called the 
earth. 

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is called a 
dependent clause, and is adjective in office; as, He loho 
studies will learn. 

A clause introduced by an adverb is a dependent clause 
used adverbially; as, ''We sowed the seed where the soil 
was moist and loamy." 

Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative pro- 
nouns, and conjunctive adverbs; as, 

1. By a conjunction. — You may study your lessons, or 
you may write a composition. 

2. By A RELATIVE PRONOUN. — He who does wrong will 
suffer. 

3. By a conjunctive adverb. — The work will be done 
when I have the time. 

Where adjuncts are used to give additional meanings 
to the terms to which they are applied, they are sometimes 
called modifiers ; as, 

A good boy. An honest man. The fire burns brightly. 



L.ofC. 



100 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

1. "We must conquer our passions, or our passions will con- 
quer us." 

2. "Wealth may come to us, but wisdom must be sought." 

3. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. 

4. "Speak clearly, if you speak at all; 

Carve every word before you let it fall." 

5. The lesson was learned lohile he was at home. 

This sentence has a dependent adverbial clause and may be 
put into diagram as follows: 

lesson _^-s^'as learned 




Note. — TT7i?7e is an adverb relating to was in the dependent clause, 
and shows that the clause relates to was learned in the principal clause. 
It is called a conjunctive adverb. 

6. "Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled." 

7. " The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing- 
press." 

8. What men he had were true. 

9. Luther died where he was born. 

10. If you are free from vice, you may expect a happy old age. 

QUESTIONS 

L What is a compound sentence? a complex sentence? 
a simple sentence? 2. What is a clause? 3. What is a de- 
pendent clause? 4. What is an adverbial clause? 5. What 
is an adjective clause? 6. Of what is a complex sentence 
composed? 7. What are adjuncts often called? 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF ADJUNCTS 101 



LESSON L 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF ADJUNCTS. -ADJUNCTS OF 
THE SUBJECT 

1. A truthful person is believed. 

2. A person of truth is believed. 

3. A person who tells the truth is believed. 

4. Your sister Mary Avas present. 

5. Nero, the Roman Emperor, was very cruel. 

6. It is very useful to study grammar. 

7. It is not proper that you should go. 

In 1, truthful is used as an adjunct of the subject. 

In 2, of truth is a phrase used as an adjunct of the subject. 

In 3, who tells the truth is a clause used as an adjunct of 
the subject. 

In 4, Mary is used to explain which sister was present. 

In 5, Emperor is used to explain who Nero was. 

In 6, to study grammar is a phrase used to explain the 
meaning of the subject it. 

In 7, that you should go is a clause used to explain the 
subject it. 

All words, phrases, and clauses that relate to a noun or 
pronoun, or are explanatory of them, are adjective ad- 
juncts; as in sentences 1 to 7. 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

1. Columbus, the discoverer of America, was carried in chains 
to Sixain. 

2. The poet Milton wrote "Paradise Lost." 

3. Pope, the translator of Homer, was a great poet. 

4. I myself was there. 

5. Do not commit the same mistake the second time. 

6. Washington, our national capital citj'', is situated on the 
Potomac. 



102 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

7. Miss Louise Young, Mr. Chandler Young's eldest daughter, 
is at home this week. 

8. Daniel Webster, the orator and statesman, was born in New 
Hampshire. 

9. Henry's brother Charles is in college. 

10. Liberty, a village on the Ontario and Western Railroad, is a 
noted summer resort. 

11. I saw Mr. Jno. Reiner, the cabinet-maker, this morning. 

An explanatory adjunct is a noun, pronoun, phrase, or 
clause used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun. 

An explanatory term is usually set off by commas, as 
in sentences 6 and 7 ; but sometimes a single word is used 
without a comma when it is practically a part of the name, • 
as in 4. 

QUESTIONS 
1. Of what may an adjective adjunct consist? 2. What 
is an explanatory word? phrase? clause? 



LESSON LI 
SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES 

1. That vice conduces to misery is certain. 

2. That idleness leads to ruin, and that industry insures success 
are certain truths. 

3. James says that his brother is not well. 

4. The fool hath said in his heart, "There is no God." 

In 1, that is an introductory word, and is considered a 
conjunction, because, in an equivalent sentence, It is cer- 
tain that vice conduces to misery, that is a connective 
word. 

In 3, that is considered a conjunction, because it implies 
that the clause which it connects to the principal clause 



ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS 103 

is used as an object in the same manner that a word is 
used. 

That 

vice r^ conduces 



to _J nu-is 

misery X certain 



The pupil may diagram the other sentences and give 
an oral analysis of each; also diagram, and give an oral 
analysis of each of the following sentences, and parse each 
word. 

1. The neighbors do not believe that he will accept. 

2. He said, "How can I ever forget your favors to me?" 

3. He thought that the laws should be more vigorously enforced. 

4. The people of all nations believe that the soul is immortal. 

5. That vicious mistakes have been made is not doubted. 

6. That success depends on industry is generally admitted. 

7. That he is improving is certain. 



LESSON LII 

ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS 

1. The lesson was learned promptly. 

2. The lesson was learned in a very short time. 

3. "The wind bloweth where it listeth." 

4. The lesson was learned at home, in the evening. 

5. He sat in the shade of an old apple tree and studied his lesson. 

Put into diagram and give an oral analysis of the 
other sentences, then diagram and analyze the following 
sentences and parse each word. 

1. I shall go home to-morrow morning. 

2. James went home on the morning train. 



104 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

3. "Around the fire, one wintry night, 

The farmer's rosy children sat." 

4. "At evening, when the lamp is lit, 

Around the fire my parents sit." 

5. " Little Robin Redbreast 

Sat upon a tree ; 
Up went pussy cat, 
And down went he." 

6. " Little rills make wider streamlets; 

Streamlets swell the river's flow; 
Rivers join the ocean billows, 
Onward, onward as they go." 



LESSON LIII 
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

1. I will give you whichever you prefer. 

2. I will give to you that which you prefer. 

3. Whoever does wrong will suffer. 

4. He who does wrong will suffer. 

In 1, the compound relative pronoun ivhichever is equal 
to that which; that is used as the object in the principal 
clause, and which as the object in the dependent clause. 

Oral Analysis : This is a complex declarative sentence. The sub- 
ject of the principal clause is the pronoun /, the predicate verb is ivill 
give, and the object is the antecedent that contained in the double rela- 
tive whichever. The adjunct of the predicate verb is the adverbial 
phrase to you, you being the principal word in the phrase, to being 
understood before you. The subject of the dependent clause is the 
pronoun you, the predicate verb is prefer, and the object is the relative 
part which contained in the double relative whichever. 

Par.hing: Whichever is a compound relative pronoun including 
both the antecedent and the relative. Whichever equals that which. 
The antecedent that is a pronoun, third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and in the objective case, object of ivill give. The rela- 



COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS 



105 



tive part of whichever, which, is a relative pronoun, third person, singu- 
lar number, neuter gender, and in the objective case, object of prefer. 

I will give 



you 



.r\. 



to 



you 



prefer 



whichever 



t^ ~| that 
you 



you ^^ prefer 



which 



whichever 



SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

1. Whoever told such a story must have been misinformed. 

2. He must take whatever he likes best. 

3. Whichever is right I will take. 

4. Whomsoever you send I will entertain. 

5. An honest man will do what is right. 



WRITTEN REVIEW 

Write in a connected manner what you have learned 
about pronouns. Tell about the classes of pronouns — what 
difficulties you had in studying them, how necessary it is 
to understand the meaning of words, and what a good mental 
drill the study of pronouns gives in the use of words. 



106 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON LIV 
VERBS.- CLASSES 

1. Walk, walked, walking, walked. 

2. Love, loved, loving, loved. 

3. See, saw, seeing, seen. 

4. Thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. 

5. Can, could. 

In 1, the verb walk expresses present time ; and walked, 
past time, imperfect or preterit. Walked is formed from 
walk by adding ed. The two participles walking and 
walked are also formed from walk by adding ing and ed 
respectively. 

In 2, loved is formed by adding d to love, and the par- 
ticiples are formed by adding ing and d. 

All verbs which form the preterit by adding d or ed, 
and the participles by adding ing, d, or ed, are called 

REGULAR VERBS. 

A regular verb is a verb which forms the preterit and the 
perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, love, loved, lov- 
ing, loved ; talk, talked, talking, talked. 

There are four parts to every verb from which all others 
are derived: the present, the preterit or past, the imper- 
fect participle (always ending in ing), and the perfect 
participle. When these are given all other parts become 
known. For this reason they are called the principal 
parts. 

In 3, the verb see denotes present time; saw, preterit 
or past time; seeing and seen are the participles. As see 
does not form the preterit and perfect participle by adding 
d or ed, it is called an irregular verb. 



VERBS.— CLASSES 107 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit 
and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, see, saw, 
seeing, seen ; ride, rode, riding, ridden. 

In 4, the verb thrive forms the preterit and perfect par- 
ticiple in two ways, so as to be both regular and irregular, 
and is called a redundant verb. 

A redimdant verb is a verb which forms the preterit and 
the perfect participle in two or more ways, so as to be 
both regular and irregular ; as, dream, dreamed or dreamt, 
dreaming, dreamed or dreamt. 

In 5, can indicates present time, and could preterit or 
past; but there are no participles, and the verb can is 
called a defective verb. Beware is used only in the pres- 
ent. Must is not varied in termination. 

A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and 
is used in but few moods and tenses ; as, shall, will, quoth. 

Observations: Regular A^erbs form the preterit and perfect par- 
ticiple by adding d to final e and ed to all other terminations. The verb 
hear, heard, hearmg, heard, adds d to r and is therefore irregular. 

Verbs are divided, therefore, in respect to form, into 
four classes; namely, regular, irregular, redundant, 
and defective. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write sentences, each containing one of the following reg- 
ular verbs in each of the four respective parts: Work, walk, 
talk, call, pull, prepare, demand, dismiss. 

EXAMPLES 

1. These two boys work on the farm in the summer. 

2. These two boys worked all day yesterday. 

3. Those men, working in the glass factory, get good wages. 

4. A young boy, worked beyond his strength, soon grows old. 



108 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

5. A boy who is worked too hard while young is likely to suffer 
from ill health in old age. 

Observations : The imperfect participle, or the participle ending in 
ed, may be used alone, as in 4, or in connection with a verb making a 
compound form of the verb ; as in 5, under Examples. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Into how many classes are verbs divided in respect to 
form? 2. What is a regular verb? 3. What is an irregular 
verb? 4, What is a redundant verb? 5. What is a defect- 
ive verb? 6. What are the four principal parts of a verb? 
7. Which parts are often used alone as participles? 8. What 
is the difference between a verb and a participle? 9. What 
is meant by compound form of a verb ? 

In the following sentences tell which words are compound 
verbs and which are participles. Put each sentence into 
diagram. Tell the form of the verb in each case; parse 
each word. 

1. The boy stood on the walk listening to the music. 

2. The boys were running, jumping, and shouting in the yard. 

3. Jane heard the rain falling on the roof. 

4. Henry saw a bad boy stealing apples in the orchard. 

5. A man can walk a mile in fifteen minutes. 

6. Henry is studying arithmetic, grammar, and geography. 

7. The old guide stood leaning his arm upon the fence. 

8. The boys are studying their lessons very carefully. 

9. The girls have prepared their written lessons with much care. 
10. The school bell is now ringing. 



VERBS.— CLASSES AND SIGNIFICATION 109 

LESSON LV 
VERBS-CLASSES AND SIGNIFICATION 

1. James studies his lesson carefully. 

2. Henry walks. 

3. The boy was struck by a falling limb. 

4. He is good. She sleeps. 

In 1, James performs an action expressed by the verb 
studies, which terminates on the object lesson. The verb 
studies is here called an active-transitive verb. 

It is called active because it expresses the action per- 
formed by the subject James, and transitive because it 
signifies that the action passes over to the object lesson. 

An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action which has some person or thing for its object; as, 
"The man bnilt a house." " Birds sing songs." " Bees 
make honey." 

In 2, the verb walks is used to express an action of its 
subject Henry, but it has no object. For this reason it 
is called an intransitive verb. 

An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action which has no person or thing for its object; as, 
*^ John ivalks,*^ " Trees </i'ott;." " Fishes ««'/»/." 

In 3, the verb ivas struck denotes an action received by 
the subject hoy. For this reason it is called a passive 

VERB. 

The word passive means suffering or enduring or re- 
ceiving the effect of an action ; as, He is assailed by slander; 
the picture is admired by all ; I am taught ; she is loved. 

A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or 
nominative, as being acted upon; as, " I atn compelled.^* 
<* The house was destroyed by fire." 



110 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Both active and passive verbs express action; the ac- 
tive denoting action as performed by the subject; the 
passive denoting action received by the subject. The 
object of the action of the active- transitive verb becomes 
the subject of the passive verb. 

An active-transitive verb may be changed into a pas- 
sive verb, and sometimes it is necessary to make the change 
to express the meaning more clearly. 

EXAMPLES 

Active Verbs. Passive Verbs. 

Cain slew AbeL Abel was slain by Cain. 

Henry wrote a letter. The letter was written by Henry. 

The boy caught a squirrel. The squirrel was caught by the boy. 

Note. — Active-transitive and passive verbs are therefore very 
closely related; for this reason some grammarians have called both 
transitive, one in the active voice and the other in the passive voice. 

But a verb may be active without being transitive; as, The boy 
studies. This word studies has four parts, study, studied, studying, 
studied. By uniting was with the fourth form studied, we have was 
studied; and we may say, The lesson was studied by the boy. The 
word study, then, is not a transitive verb except by use; consequently 
was studied is not a transitive verb, but simply a passive verb. 

In 4, is, in the sentence He is good, is used simjDly to 
express existence or being; while in the sentence She 
sleeps, sleeps expresses a state of being, or condition, of 
the person. If I say. The tree stands on the hill, stands is 
used simply to express a condition or state of being of the 
tree, because there is no action on the part of the tree; 
but if I say, The boy sta7ids on the hill, stands expresses an 
action as performed by the boy ; he may stand, sit, or run, 
as he feels inclined; consequently stand is, in this case, 
an active-intransitive verb. The learner must in every 
case consider the meaning and use of a word and class it 
accordingly. 



EXERCISES 111 

A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action 
nor passion, but simply being or state of being; as, " Thou 
art:' " He sleeps:' " The book lies on the table." 



It is thus seen that verbs are divided, in respect to sig- 
nification, into four classes: Active-transitive, active- 
intransitive, passive, and neuter. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How are verbs divided in respect to form? 2. How are 
verbs divided in respect to signification or meaning? 3. What 
is an active-transitive verb? 4. What is an active-intran- 
sitive verb? 5. What is a passive verb? 6. What is a 
neuter verb? 7. State the difference between an active- 
transitive verb and a passive verb. 

Express the following sentences so that the verbs will 
have the passive form: 

1. Charles caught a rabbit. 

2. Susan studied her lesson carefully. 

3. James caught a fine string of trout. 

4. Henry recited his lesson to his teacher. 

5. Mary told the difference between a passive and a neuter verb. 

6. W. F. Edmonds has built a new house. 

7. The president called the meeting to order. 



LESSON LVI 

EXERCISE 

Put the following .sentences into diagram, gi\'e an' oral 
analysis of each, tell the classes of verbs, ami parse each 
word : 

1. Tlie boat moves rapidly down the river. 

2. The man stood motionless. 

3. The book lay on the desk. 

4. The river is frozen over. 



112 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

5. The boy was punished for his vicious actions. 

6. Lucy studies her lessons at home, at night. 

7. The wind blew and the rain descended in torrents. 

8. The wily old fox was finally caught in the trap Avhich he had 
so long and so skillfully evaded. 

9. The express train passed the station at the rate of fifty miles 
an hour. 

10. Henry, have you learned your lesson? 

Construct sentences each of which will contain one of the 
following: 

Have, was elected, had prepared, did go, has~ written, ivas burned, 
have been preserved, was communicated, erased, distinguished, lived, 
wrote, compared, disappeared, disappointed, were compelled. 

Write three sentences with a regular verb in each. 
Write three sentences with a neuter verb in each. 
Write three sentences with an intransitive verb in each. 
Write three sentences with a passive verb in each. 
Write three sentences wdth a defective verb in each. 



LESSON L^^II 

VERBS.-MODIFICATIONS 

MOODS 

Verbs in their various forms are used to express the 

conditions and actions of persons, the conditions of 

things, and the effect of tlie passions upon the mind. 

These various modifications of the verb are called moods. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular 
manner. 

1. To be. To read. To feel sad. 

2. I am. I read. I dislike the boy. Do you know? 

3. I can go. I may go. I might go, I must go. 



VERBS.— MODIFICATIONS 113 

4. If I see him, I shall tell him. If he be sick, I shall visit him. 
If it were not so, I would have told you. 

5. Bring me a book. Be comforted. James, do be careful. 
Henry, go with him. 

In 1, be, in the phrase to he, denotes existence without 
reference to any subject. In the phrase to read, read 
denotes action, but there is no subject. In the phrase 
to feel sad, feel denotes the effect of some passion upon 
the mind by the attribute sad. Verbs used in this man- 
ner are said to be in the infinitive mood. Infinitive 
means unlimited. The verbs in all the other moods are 
called finite verbs. 

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which ex- 
presses the being, action, or passion in an unlimited manner, 
and without person or number ; as, " To be honest is to be 
just." " I intend to write." " He desires to be happy." 

In the sentences in 2, am denotes existence, read denotes 
action, dislike denotes a condition of the feelings, and 
do know is used with its subject to ask a question. With 
each verb there is a subject, and the verbs so used are 
said to be in the indicative mood. 

The indicative mood is that form of the verb which sim- 
ply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question ; as, 
" I write." " You knoiv." " Do you know ? " 

In the sentences in 3, can go denotes power to go, may 
go denotes liberty to go, might go denotes possibility of 
going, and should go denotes necessity for going. Eacli 
verb has a subject, and such verbs are said to be in the 
potential mood. 

The potential mood is that form of the verb which ex- 
presses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the 



114 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

being, action, or passion ; as, " I can read:' " You may 
go:' " They might go:' " We must go:' 

In the subordinate clauses in 4, see expresses the action 
of the subject as conditional, he expresses doubt as to the 
condition of the subject, and were expresses a condition 
dependent upon the action expressed in the principal 
clause. Such verbs are said to be in the subjunctive 

MOOD. 

The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb which 
represents the being, action, or passion as conditional, 
doubtful, contingent ; as, " If I tvere you I ivoiild go to 
school." 

In the sentences in 5, Bring expresses a command, Be 
comforted expresses* an exhortation, do he expresses an 
entreaty, and, go expresses permission. All such verbs 
are said to be in the imperative mood. 

The imperative mood is that form of the verb used in 
commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, 
"Depart thou." "Be comforted." "Go in peace." 

questions 

1. What are moods? 2. What is meant by the actions of 
persons and the condition of things? 3. What is meant by 
the effect of the passions upon the mind? 4. What is meant 
by the modifications of a verb? 5. In the phrase to he, what 
does he denote? 6. In the phrase to feel sad, what does feel 
denote? {Answer. Feel here denotes a condition of the mind 
caused by grief and expressed by the attribute sad.) 7. What 
is the infinitive mood? 8. Explain the differences in meaning 
of the verbs in the sentences I am. I read. I dislike the boy. 
Do you know? 9. Explain the differences in meaning of 
the verbs in the sentences, I can go. I might go. I may go. 
I should go. 10. Explain the use of see in the sentences, If 



USES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 115 

I see him, I shall tell him. 11. Explain the use of bring 
in the sentence, Bring me a book. 

Tell the mood of each verb in the following sentences : 

1. If I were you I would study this lesson carefully. 

2. Does the sun shine? 

3. Charles, bring me that book. 

4. Henry, you may go now. 

5. If he has money, he keeps it. 

6. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 

7. Men would be happy if they were good. 

8. Men would not worship the sun if they knew God. 

9. We should have friends if we were friendly. 

10. Try to do right under all circumstances. 

11. Strive to learn your lesson thoroughly. 

12. "To err is human; to forgive, divine." 

13. "Sweet was the sound when oft at evening's close 

Up yonder hill the village murmur rose." — Goldsmith. 



LESSON LVIII 

USES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD 

A verb in the infinitive mood differs so much in its use 
from a finite verb, that it seems necessary here to make 
some special explanation of its various uses. 

1. He had permission to go home. An infinitive adjective phrase 
modifying permission. 

2. I am glad to see you. An infinitive adverbial phrase modify- 
ing glad. 

3. I went to see my friend. An infinitive adverbial plu'asc modifv- 
ing went. 

4. To enjoy is to obey. To enjoy is the subject of the verb is, and 
to obey is the attribute. 

5. I wish Mary to study grammar. Mary to study grammar is an 
object infinitive clause, Mary being the object of icish and the sub- 
ject of the infinitive to study. 



116 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

In these examples, it will be seen that to is a preposition 
before the infinitives in 1, 2, and 3; that in 4, it is used 



He 



had 







1 permission 










to 


go 




is 


r 




home 


To 

enjoy 


.to 

1 obey 






/ 





with the infinitive as a subject, and also as an attribute. 
To enjoy might be called a verbal noun; but in many 
instances it performs the office of a transitive verb also; 
as, in the sentence To enjoy freedom of speech is one of 
the privileges of an American citizen. Here to enjoy is, 
with the phrase of which it forms a part, the subject of is, 
also a transitive verb in the infinitive mood, having speech 
for its object. The to in 4 is used with its object, enjoy, 
as the subject of is; and to obey as the attribute. In 5; 
/ wish Mary to study grammar is equivalent to / imsh that 
Mary woidd study grammar. Mary is the object of wish 
and the subject of the infinitive to study. 

In this sentence there is, as may be found in many other 
cases, some difference between a general analysis of a sen- 
tence and the ultimate analysis or parsing of words. In 
general analysis we call Mary to study grammar an object 
infinitive clause, while in parsing tlie words, we say that 



USES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD 117 

Mary is the object of wish and also the subject of the infini- 
tive to study. 

This is so in this case, because / wish Mary to study gram- 
mar is a sort of Latinized Enghsh form of a sentence, — an 
idiomatic sentence. Infinitive, in general, means un- 
limited, or without a subject; but in 5, the infinitive has 
an exceptional use. 

" I wish that Mary would study grammar," is the true 
English form, "and is preferable. 

The infinitive differs very much in use from a participle. 
Example: I saw Mary writing a letter. This implies 
that I looked at Mary a moment and saw her writing a 
letter; but in the sentence I saw Mary write a letter, I 
looked at Mary from the time she began to write the letter 
until she finished it. 

SENTENCES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

1. James went to the depot to meet a friend coming from the 

city. 

2. Alonzo went into the woods to gather chestnuts. 

3. It is a delightful day to go into the woods. 

4. James went to see the circus. 

5. Millie rode out into the country to see her brother on the 

farm. 

6. It is now time to go to school. 

7. Ethel intends to study bookkeeping next term. 

8. Henry has learned to play on the piano. 

9. This boy is striving to be first in his class. 
10. To see is to beheve. 



118 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON LIX 
TENSES 

1. I see the boy before me. 

2. I saw the boy yesterday. 

3. I have seen the boy to-day. 

4. I had seen the boy when I met you. 

5. I shall see the boy soon. 

6. I shall have seen the boy by to-morrow noon. 

Tenses are those modifications of the verb which dis- 
tinguish time. 

In 1, see is used to express present time. All verbs used 
to express present time are said to be in the present tense. 

The present tense is that which expresses what now 
exists or is taking place ; as, " I hear a noise ; somebody is 
coming." 

In 2, saw denotes past time, and any verb used to ex- 
press past time is generally said to be in the imperfect tense. 

The imperfect tense is that which generally expresses 
what took place or was occurring in time fully past; as, 
" He saw the boy on the street." " He was walking out." 

In 3, have seen denotes time past, but also implies a 
portion of time not yet fully past; that is, a portion of the 
period of time in which I saw him is past, but a past yet 
remains. 

The perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken 
place within some period of time not yet fully past; as, 
" I have seen the boy to-day." 

Have is the sign of the perfect tense. 

In 4, had seen denotes what had taken place in some 



TENSES 119 

past time mentioned. We may say, Charles had a book in 
his hand when I met him on the walk. 

The preperfect tense is that which expresses what had 
taken place at some past time mentioned; as, "I had seen 
him when I met you." " We had started for home before 
you came." Had is the sign of the preperfect tense. 

In 5, shall see denotes time in the future. Shall is called 
the auxiliary verb and denotes future time. 

The first-future tense is that which expresses what will 
take place hereafter; as, " I shall see him again." "We 
shall go in the morning." 

In 6, shall have seen is used to denote an event at a future 
time mentioned. Seen is a form of the verb see, and shall 
have is called the auxiliary verb. 

The second-future tense is that which expresses what will 
take place at some future time mentioned; as, "I shall 
have seen him by to-morrow noon." 

Write the tense form of each of the verlDS in the sentences 
in the preceding lesson. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are tenses? 2. What is the present tense? the 
imperfect tense? the perfect tense? the preperfect tense? the 
first-future tense? the second-future tense? 3. Give exam- 
ples of each. 

Write the following words in sentences that will illustrate 
the use of the six tenses: 

Know, write, play, talk, walk, call. 

Examples: I am sitting by the fire. I sat by the fire. I have 
been sitting by the fire. I had been sitting by the fire when you 
came. I shall sit by the fire. I shall have sat by the fire a week 
to-morrow if I remain here. 



120 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON LX 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 

You have learned that the modifications of a verb are 
moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. The giving of these 
modifications in a systematic order is called conjugation. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of 
its moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

There are four principal parts in the conjugation of every 
verb that is both simple and complete ; namely, the pres- 
ent, the preterit, the imperfect participle, and the perfect 
participle; as, 

Prfsfnt Pretfrit Imperfect Perfect 

i-RESENT. rRETERIT. PARTICIPLE. PARTICIPLE. 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

Preterit means the same as imperfect or past tense. 
A verb which wants any of these parts is called a 
defective verb; as, 

Prfsent Prftfrtt Imperfect Perfect 

l-RESENT. l-RETERIT. PARTICIPLE. PARTICIPLE. 

Can. Could. 

Sometimes a short verb is prefixed to one of the prin- 
cipal parts of a verb, making it compound in form. Such 
a verb thus prefixed is called an auxiliary verb ; as. He 
did go. I have loved. 

An auxiliary verb is a short verb prefixed to one of the 
principle parts of another verb, to express some particular 
mode and time of the being, action, OT passioti. 

The auxiliaries are do, he, have, shall, will, may, can, 
and miist with their variations. 

Obs. Some of these, especially do, be, and have, are 
also used as principal verbs; as, I did this work with care. 
Be kind to j^our sister. I have an orange. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE 121 

Diagram the following sentences, and tell which verbs are 
simple, and which are compound ; also tell which are auxiliaries. 

1. AlAvays do your work in the best manner. 

2. Be honorable in your deahngs with others. 

3. I have a pencil and a pen. 

4. I shall go home to-morrow. 

5. James will be required to stay at home. 

6. I saw Henry writing a letter. 

7. I saw Henry write a letter. 

8. He may go home at noon to-day. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the conjugation of a verb? 2. What are the 
principal parts of a verb? 3. What is a defective verb? 4. 
What is an auxiliary verb? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write a sentence which will contain an auxihary verb. 

2. Write a sentence which will contain a defective verb. 

3. Write a sentence which will contain a compound transitive 
verb. 4. Write a sentence which will contain a passive 
verb. 5. Write a general review of this lesson. 



LESSON LXI 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE 

PRINCIPAL PARTS 

Present. Preterit or Past. I^u'. Participle. Perfect Participle. 
Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To love. 
Perfect Tense. To have loved. 



122 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 

3d per. He loves ; Sd per. They love. 

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxil- 
iary do to the verb : 

Singular. Plural. 

L I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love; 3. They do love. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

This tense, in its simplest form, is the preterit. Preterit, 
imperfect, and past all denote time past. D or ed added to 
the simple form of the verb forms the preterit. 

Singular. Plural. 

L I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thoulovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved; 3. They loved. 

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
did to the present : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2, You did love, 

3. He did love; 3. They did love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect 
participle. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE 123 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. 

PREPERFECT TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxiUary had to the perfect par- 
ticiple. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxihary shall or will to the pres- 
ent, 

1. Simply to express a future action or event: 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You wiH love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

2. To express a promise, volition, COMMAND, or 
threat: 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love 

3. Heshalllove; 3. He shall love. 

A promise is an engagement by one person to another. 
A volition is the exercise of the will, 
A command is an authoritative order requiring obedience. 
A threat is the expression of an intention to inflict evil 
or injury to another. — Webster Diet. 



124 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxiharies shall have or luill have 
to the perfect participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved ; 3. They wih have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must to 
the radical verb. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or 
should to the radical verb. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2, You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries may have, can have, or 
must have to the perfect participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB I.OVE 125 

PREPERFECT TENSE. (Pre meaus before.) 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries might have, could have, 
would have, or should have to the perfect participle. 

Singular. Plural. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


I might have loved, 1. We might have loved. 
Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved. 
He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 
If I love, 1. If we love. 
If thou love, 2. If you love. 
If he love; 3. If they love. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 



LESSON LXII 

Observations in reference to the distinctions in the use 
of words; also of tense forms. 

1. I can go in the morning. (I am able to go, or I am so situated 
that I can leave.) 

2. I may go in the morning. (There is a possibility of my 
going.) 

3. Mother says that I maj^ go with you. (Denotes permission 
to go.) 

4. Please, may I go now? (A request.) 



126 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

5. Please, can I go now? (You ask if you are able to go, but 
you do not ask permission.) 

6. May you live happily together. (A wish is expressed.) 

7. 1 suppose I might go in the morning. (The time expressed 
by might go is future.) 

8. I would go if I thought I could be of service to you. (Future 
time is expressed.) 

9. I think that I should go in the morning. (Should go ex- 
presses future time.) 

10. James did go this morning. (Denotes time past.) 

11. James went away before I left home. (Past time preceding 
a past time mentioned.) 

12. I saw Henry before he went to Europe. (Previous time in 
past similarly expressed.) 

13. I had seen Henry when I met you, before he went to Europe. 
(Expresses time past previous to past time mentioned.) 

Observe the difference in meaning of jnay and can in 
sentences from 1 to 5 inclusive. 

Observe also the difference in time expressed by the 
forms of the imperfect tense in both the indicative and 
potential moods from 1 to 13. There is a clear distinction 
in the meaning of the words however. 

Note. — From these examples it is clear that the tenses do not express 
time with equal precision. The imperfect tense has reference in the 
different forms of expression under the different moods, to time future 
as well as to time past. Yet these various forms are classed under the 
head imperfect tense. It will be seen that the word imperfect has a 
broader meaning than the word past, consequently imperfect tense is 
preferable to past tense. 

The only way for you to make these distinctions in reference to 
time, and to class these forme properly under the different tenses, is to 
learn the signs of the tenses under the different moods. 

When you have learned the conjugation of one verb under the vari- 
ous moods, and the signs of the tenses, then you can readily determine 
the different tense-forms for all other verbs of the same class. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD 127 

QUESTIONS 

1. In 1, what does can go signify? 2. What does may go 
signify in 2? in 3? in 4? 3. What does can go mean in 5? 

4. What does may live express in 6? what time is implied? 

5. What time is expressed by rnight go in 7? 6. What time 
is expressed by would go in 8? 7. What time is expressed 
by think, and what by should go in 9? 



LESSON LXIII 
IMPERATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 

Singtdar. 2. Love [thou] or Do thou love. 
Plural. 2. Love [ye or you] or Do you love. 

Participles 

1. Lnperfect, Loving. 

2. Perfect, Loved. 

3. Preperfect, Having loved. 

synopsis of the first example 

First Person, Singular 

Indicative. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I 
shall love, I shall have loved. Potential. I may love, I 
might love, I may have loved, I might have loved. Sub- 
junctive. If I love, If I loved. 

Second Person, Singular 

Indicative. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, 
Thou hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. 
Potential. Thou mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou 
mayst have loved, Thou mightst have loved. Subjunc- 



128 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

TivE. If thou love, If thou loved. Imperative. Love thou 
or Do thou love. 

Third Person, Singular 

Indicative. He loves, He loved. He has loved, He had 
loved, He will love, He will have loved. Potential. He 
may love, He might love. He may have loved, He might 
have loved. Subjunctive. If he love. If he loved. 

First Person, Plural 

Indicative. We love. We loved. We have loved, We had 
loved. We shall love. We shall have loved. Potentiai^. 
We may love, We might love. We may have loved, Wc might 
have loved. Subjunctive. If we love. If we loved. 

Second Person, Plural 

Indicative. You love, You loved, You have loved. You 
had loved. You will love, You will have loved. Potential. 
You may love, You might love. You may have loved, You 
might have loved. Subjunctive. If you love, If you loved. 
Imperative. Love [ye or you] or Do you love. 

Third Person, Plural 

Indicative. They love, They loved. They have loved, 
They had loved. They will love, They will have loved. Po- 
tential. They may love, They might love, They may have 
loved. They might have loved. Subjunctive. If they love, 
If they loved. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliat is the conjugation of a verb? 2. What are the 
four principal parts of a verb? 3. What two parts of the 
verb are sometimes participles? 4. What is the sign of the 
perfect tense? 5. What is the sign of the preperfect tense? 
6, What is the sign of the first-future tense to express a 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE 129 

future event? To express a promise, a volition, a command, 
or a threat? 7. What is the sign of the second-future tense? 
S. What are the signs of the present tense, potential mood? 
Of the imperfect or past tense? Of the perfect tense? Of the 
preperfect tense? 9. How many tenses are there in the 
subjunctive mood? 10. What tense is used in the impera- 
tive mood? 11. What are the participles of the verb love? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write sentences to illustrate the use of the verb in each 
of the tenses in the indicative mood. 2. Write sentences 
to illustrate each tense in the potential mood. 3. Write 
sentences to illustrate each tense in the subjunctive mood. 
4. Write sentences to illustrate the tense in the imperative 
mood. 5. Write sentences to illustrate the use of the par- 
ticiples of the verb love. 



LESSON LXIV 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE 

PRINCIPAL PARTS 

The Preterit The Imp. The Perfect 

The Present. or Past. Participle. Participle. 

See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 

INFINITWE MOOD 
Present Tense. To see. 
Perfect Tense. To have seen. 

INDICATIVE IMOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular. Pi.i^ral. 

1. I see, 1. Wo see, 

2. Thouseest, 2. You see, 

3. He sees: 3. Thovsee. 



130 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 





IMPERFECT 


TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I saw. 

Thou sawest, 
He saw ; 


Plural. 

1. We saw, 

2. You saw, 

3. They saw. 




PERFECT TENSE 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I have seen. 
Thou hast seen, 
He has seen ; 


Plural. 

1. We have seen, 

2. You have seen, 

3. They have seen. 




PREPERFECT 


TENSE 


1. 
2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I had seen, 
Thou hadst seen. 
He had seen ; 


Plural. 

1. We had seen, 

2. You had seen, 

3. They had seen. 



FIRST-FUTURE TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 

2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 

3. He will see; 3. They will see. 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 

2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen, 

3. He will have seen; 3. They will have scon. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may see, 1. We may see, 

2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 

3. He may see; 3. They may see. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SEE 131 



IMPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 

2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 

3. He might see; 3. They might see. 

PERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 

2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 

3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 

PREPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 

2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 

3. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
PRESENT TENSE 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I see, 1. If we see, 

2. If thou see, 2. If you see, 

3. If he see; 3. If they see. 

IMPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I saw, 1. If we saw, 

2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, 

3. If he saw; 3. If they saw. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE ' 

Singular. 2. See [thou] or Do thou see. 
Plural. 2. See [ye or you] or Uo you see. 



132 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



The Imperfect. 
Seeing. 



Participles 
The Perfect. 
Seen. 



The Preperfect. 
Having seen. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Why is see an irregular verb? 2. Tell the principal 
parts. 3. Give the participles. 4. What is the progressive 
form of the verb see ? 5. What is the passive form? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write sentences to illustrate each tense in each mood. 
2. Write a synopsis of the verb see. 



The Present. 
Be. 



LESSON LXV 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 

PRINCIPAL PARTS 

The Preterit The Imp. The Perfect 

OR Past. Participle. Participle. 



Was. 



Being. 



Been. 



INFINITIVE MOOD 
Present Tense. To be. Perfect Tense. To have been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 





PRESENT TENSE 


Singular. 




Plural. 


1. lam, 




1. We are. 


2. Thou art, 




2. You are, 


3. He is; 




3. They are. 




IMPERFECT 


TENSE 


Singular. 




Plural. 


1. I was, 




1. We were, 


2. Thou wast,* 




2. You were. 


3. He was; 




3. Thej^were. 



* Wert is sometimes used in poetry for wast; as, " Vainly wert thou 
wed." — Byron. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 133 

PERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been, 1, We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

PREPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. IshaUbe, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 3. They will be. 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I shall have been, 
Thou wilt have been, 
He will have been ; 


Plural. 

1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 

3. They will have been. 




POTENTIAL 


MOOD 




PRESENT TENSE 


1. 

2 

3. 


Singular. 
I may be, 
Thou mayst be. 
He may be; 


Plural. 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be 




IMPERFECT 


TENSE 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I might be, 
Thou mightst be, 
He might be; 


Plural. 

1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 

3. They might be. 



134 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

PERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

PREPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 





SUBJUNCTIVE 


, MOOD. 




PRESENT TENSE 


Singular. 

1. If I be, 

2. If thou be 

3. If he be; 




Pl.TTRAL. 

1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 




IMPERFECT TENSE 


Singular. 

1. If I were, 

2. If thou wert or were, 

3. If he were; 


Plural. 

1 . If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 




IMPERATIVE 


MOOD 




PRESENT TENSE 


Singular. 2. 
Plural. 2. 


Be [thou] or Do thou be. 
Be [ye or you] or Do you be. 




Participles. 


The Imperfect, 
Being. 


The Perfect. The Preperfect. 
Been. Having been. 



COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated by adding 
the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, through 
all its changes; as, I am writing; He is sitting. 



COMPOUND FORM OF THE VERB READ 135 

This compound form of conjugation denotes a continuance 
of the action or state of being, and is, on many occasions, 
preferable to the simple form of the verb. 

Write a synopsis of the verb be in all the moods and tenses. 



LESSON LXVI 
COMPOUND FORM OF THE VERB READ 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SIMPLE VERB 

The Imp. The Perfect 

The Present. The Preterit. Participle. Participle. 

Read. Read. Reading. Read. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

Present Tense. To be reading. 
Perfect Tense. To have been reading. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 

2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 

3. He is reading; 3. They are reading. 

IMPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 

2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 

3. He was reading ; 3. They were reading. 

PERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I have been reading, 1 . Wc have been reading, 

2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 

3. He has been readino- ; 8. Thov have been reading. 



136 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

PREPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 

2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 

3. He had been reading; 3. The}^ had been reading. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 

2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 

3. He will be reading; 3. They will be reading. 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been read- 1. We shall have been read- 

ing, ing, 

2. Thou wilt have been read- 2. You will have been reading, 

ing, 

3. He will have been reading; 3. They will have been reading. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 
PRESENT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 

2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 

3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. 

IMPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be reading, 1. AVe might be reading, 

2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 

3. He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading. 

PERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may have been reading, 1. We may have been reading, 

2. Thou mayst have been read- 2, You may have been reading, 

ing, 

3. He may have been reading; 3. They may have been read- 

ing. 



COMPOUND FORM OF THE VERB READ 137 

PREFERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might have been reading, 1. We might have been reading, 

2. Thou mightst have been 2. You might have been read- 

reading, ing, 

3. He might have been read- 3. They might have been read- 

ing; ing. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular. Plurai;. 

1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 

2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 

3. If he be reading; 3. If they be reading. 

IMPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 

2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 

3. If he were reading; 3. If they were reading. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 

Singular. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. 
Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. 

PARTICIPLES 

The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect. 

Being reading. Having been reading. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the comj-jouud form of the verb? 2. What are 
the infinitive forms? 3. Is the progressive form ahvays com- 
pound? Why? 4. Is it necessary to use these different 
forms sometimes in writing? 



138 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write a sentence in the indicative mood, first person, 
singular. 2. Write four sentences representing the four 
tenses in the potential mood. 3. Write two sentences in 
the imperative mood. 



LESSON LXVII 

FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS 

The perfect participle of an active verb and the auxiliary 
verb be form the passive verb through all its changes. 
Sometimes the imperfect participle is used in a passive 
sense in the compound form; as, " The goods are selling;" 
"The ships are building'," and the perfect participle may 
also have a neuter signification; as, "I am come; " " He is 
risen;" "They are fallen." The former are passive, and 
the latter neuter, verbs. 

CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB BE LOVED 

Principal Parts of the Active Verb 

The Imp. The Perfect 

The Present. The Preterit. Participle. Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 
Present Tense. To be loved. 
Perfect Tense. To have been loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 
present tense 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved; 3. They are loved. 



FORM OF PASSr^E VERBS. 139 





IMPERFECT 


TENSE 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I was loved, 


1. We were loved, 


2. 


Thou wast loved, 


2. You were loved. 


3. 


He was loved ; 


3. Thev were loved. 



PERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

PREPERFECT TENSE 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. 

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ; 3. They will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD 
PRESENT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 



140 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

IMPERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

PERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1 . 1 may have been loved, 1 . We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

FREPERFECT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might have been loved, 1 . We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been 2. You might have been loved, 

loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved ; 3, If they be loved. 





IMPERFECT 


TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
If I were loved, 
If thou wert loved, 
If he were loved ; 


Plural. 

1. If we were loved, 

2. If you were loved, 

3. If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE 



Singular. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou beloved. 
Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 



FORM OF NEGATION 141 

PARTICIPLES 
The Imperfect. The Perfect. The Preperfect. 

Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Write sentences to illustrate the use of each tense in 
each mood. 

2. Write sentences to illustrate the use of the three par- 
ticiples. 

3. Tell how the passive verb differs from the active verb. 

4. Tell how the passive verb differs from the neuter verb. 



LESSON LXVIII 

FORM OF NEGATION 

A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb 
not after it, or after the first auxiliary; but the infinitive 
and the participles take the negative first. 

Infinitive. Not to love. Not to have loved. Indicative. 
I love not, or I do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I 
have not loved, I had not loved, I shall not love, I shall not 
have loved. Potential. I may, can, or must not love; I 
might, could, would, or should not love; I may, can, or must 
not have loved; I might, could, would, or should not have 
loved. Subjunctive. If I love not. If I loved not. Parti- 
ciples. Not loving. Not having loved. 

FORM OF QUESTION 

A verb is conjugated interrogatirchj, in the indicative 
and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, 
or after the first auxiliary: 



142 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GR.\MMAR 

Indicative. Do I love? Did I love? Have I loved? 
Had I loved? Shall I love? Shall I have loved? Poten- 
tial. May, can, or must I love? Might, could, would, or 
should I love? May, can, or must I have loved? Might, 
could, would, or should I have loved? 

FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in 
the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nomi- 
native and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary : 

Indicative. Do I not love? Did I not love? Have I not 
loved? Had I not loved? Shall I not love? Shall I not have 
loved? Potential. May, can, or must I not love? Might, 
could, would, or should I not love? May, can, or must I not 
have loved? Might, could, would, or should I not have loved? 

QUESTIONS 

1. What does negatively mean? 2. Where is the adverb 
not placed in the form of negation? 3. Where is the nomi- 
native placed when a question is asked? 4. Where are the 
nominative and the adverb not placed when the sentence has 
the form of question with negation? 5. Give sentences to 
illustrate these different forms. 



LESSON LXIX 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 

The irregular verbs have four forms each; namely, 
the present, the preterit, the imperfect participle, and the 
perfect participle. The preterit, the imperfect tense, and 
the past tense are nearly alike in meaning, the imperfect 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 143 

being often used to express future time as in the potential 
and subjunctive moods. Usually the imperfect and the 
perfect participle are compounded wth the verb he in its 
various forms to form the progressive and the passive 
verbs. When used separately, they are participles. You 
learned the various forms of these verbs and participles in 
the conjugation of the verbs. By observing those forms 
you will be enabled to write, correctly, sentences to repre- 
sent the various uses of the four forms of the irregular 
verbs. 



OBSERVE THE FOLLOWING FORMS USED IN 
SENTENCES: 

Sing. — 1, The bird sings sweetly. 2. The bird sang its evening 
song and then flew away into the Avoods. 3. The bird is singing 
its morning songs. 4. The bird's morning song was sung before 
you were up. 5. I heard the bird singing its morning song. 
6. The songs sung by the bird last evening were delightful. 7. The 
bird sang its morning song before you were awake. 

Lay (to place). — 1. Lay the book on the table. 2. The boy 
laid the book on the table. 3. I saw the boy laying the book on 
the table. 4. The book was laid on the table. 5. That book 
just laid on the table is a history of the United States. 

Lie (to rest). — 1. The boy lies on the sofa. 2. The boy lay on 
the sofa. 3. The boy is lying on the sofa. 4. The boy had lain 
on the sofa for an hour when you saw him. 

Sit. — 1. He sits by the fire studying his lesson. 2. He sat by 
the fire when you came in. 3. He is sitting by the fire and thinking 
about his lesson. 

Be, is, am, are. — 1. If he he sick I will visit him (subjunctive 
form). 2. If he is sick he does not complain. 3. I am here. 
4. We are ready. 5. I being young, they deceived me. G. He 
has been here several times. 

In the same manner write sentences to illustrate the use of each 
of the irregular verbs. 



144 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



Note to Teacher. — If the pupils are required to write sentences to 
illustrate the use of each of the irregular A'erbs, and each lesson is talked 
about, and reasons given for the various forms, the exercises will do 
much to correct many of the incorrect forms of expressions used by 
pupils. 

Let the pupils take ten words for a lesson ; or, if the class be some- 
what advanced, twenty words might be given for a lesson. Such les- 
sons tax the ingenuity of the pupils — cause them to think carefully, and 
to reason from the forms given in the conjugation of the verbs. It is 
an excellent discipline of the mind. 



The 


The Preterit 


The Imperfect 


The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Abide, 


abode. 


abiding, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising. 


arose. 


Be, 


was. 


being, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore or bare. 


bearing. 


borne or born.* 


Beat, 


beat. 


beating. 


beat or beaten. 


Begin, 


began. 


beginning. 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beholding. 


beheld. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching. 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset. 


besetting. 


beset. 


Bid, 


bid or bade. 


bidding. 


bid or bidden. 


Bide, 


bode. 


biding. 


bode. 


Bind, 


bound. 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting. 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled. 


bleeding. 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew. 


blowing. 


blown. 


Break, 


broke. 


breaking. 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding. 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing. 


brought. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting. 


burst. 




LESSON LXX 




Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting. 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, 


catching. 


caught. 



^ Borne signifies carried; born signifies brought forth. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 



145 



The 


The Preterit 


The Imperfect 


The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Chide, 


chid. 


chiding. 


chidden or chid, 


Choose, 


chose. 


choosing. 


chosen. 


Cleave,* 


cleft or clove. 


cleaving. 


cleft or cloven. 


Cling, 


clung. 


clinging. 


clung. 


Come, 


came. 


coming. 


come. 


Cost, 


cost. 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept. 


creeping, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut. 


cutting. 


cut. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing, 


dealt. 


Do, 


did, 


doing. 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing. 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, 


drunk or drank. 


Drive, 


drove. 


driving. 


driven. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eating. 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling. 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed. 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling. 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fighting. 


fought. 



LESSON LXXI 



Find, 


found. 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled. 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung. 


flinging. 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying. 


flo^vn. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forbearing. 


forborne. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing. 


frozen. 


Get, 


got, 


getting, 


got or gotten. 


Give, 


gave. 


giving. 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going. 


gone. 


Grind, 


ground. 


grinding, 


ground. 



* Cleave, to split, is irrcgulai 
lar, but clove was formerly used, 



•, as above; cleave, to stick, is regu- 
in the preterit, for cleaved. 



146 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



The 


The Preterit 


The Imperfect 


The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing. 


grown. 


Have, 


had. 


having. 


had. 


Hear, 


heard. 


hearing. 


heard. 


Hide, 


hid. 


hiding, 


hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


hit. 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held. 


holding. 


held or holden. 


Keep, 


kept. 


keeping. 


kept. 


Know, 


knew. 


knowing, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid. 


laying. 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading, 


led. 



LESSON LXXII 



Leave, 


left. 


leaving. 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let. 


letting. 


let. 


Lie (to rest) , 


i^iy, 


lying, 


lain. 


Lose, 


lost. 


losing. 


lost. 


Make, 


made. 


making. 


made. 


Mean, 


meant. 


meaning. 


meant. 


Meet, 


met. 


meeting, 


met. 


Outdo, 


outdid. 


outdoing. 


outdone. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Put, 


put. 


putting, 


put. 


Read, 


read. 


reading, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent. 


rending, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid. 


ridding. 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode. 


riding. 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang or rung. 


ringing. 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


rising. 


risen. 


Run, 


ran or run. 


running. 


run. 


Say, 


said. 


saying. 


said. 


See, 


saw. 


seeing. 


seen. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 



147 



LESSON LXXIII 



The 


The Preterit 


The Imperfect The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Seek, 


sought. 


seeking. 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending. 


sent. 


oet. 


set. 


setting. 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking, 


shaken. 


Shed, 


shed. 


shedding. 


shed. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shoeing. 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shooting. 


shot. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk or shrank, shrinking, 


shrunk or shrunken. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting. 


shut. 


Sing, 


sang or sung. 


singing. 


sung. 


Sink, 


sank or sunk. 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat. 


sitting. 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew. 


slaying. 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, - 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid. 


sliding. 


slid or slidden. 


Sling, 


slung. 


slinging. 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking. 


slunk. 


Smite, 


smote. 


smiting. 


smitten or smit. 



LESSON LXXIV 



Speak, 


spoke. 


speaking. 


spoken. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spending. 


spent. 


Spin, 


spun. 


spinning. 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit. 


spitting. 


spit. 


Spread, 


spread. 


spreading, 


sin-oad. 


Spring, 


sprung or sprang, 


springing. 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood. 


standing. 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole. 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking. 


stuck. 



M8 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



The 


The Preterit 


The Imperfect 


The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Sting, 


stung. 


stinging. 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, 


striding, 


stridden or strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck or stricken, 


String, 


strung, 


stringing, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving. 


striven. 


Sweep, 


swept. 


sweeping. 


swept. 


Swear, 


swore. 


swearing. 


sworn. 


Swim, 


swam. 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking. 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching. 


taught. 



LESSON LXXV 



Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling. 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking. 


thought. 


Throw, 


threw. 


throwing, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading. 


trodden or trod. 


Wear, 


wore. 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


weaving. 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


weeping. 


wept. 


Win, 


won. 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


winding. 


wound. 


Wring, 


Avrung, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote. 


writing, 


written. 



WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of cacla of the followin"- 
verbs in each of the four forms given in the list of irregular verbs: 
Be, bid, blow, break, buy, choose, come, do, draw, drink drive 
eat, fall, feed, fight, freeze, get, go, hear, lay, lie, ring, run, see, sing, 
swim, teach, throw, win, write. 



REDUNDANT VERBS 



149 



Example: 1. Be kind to every one. 2. He was there. 3. Being 
very busy, I did not go. 4. Henry has been sick. In writing this 
exercise the compound form may be used as in 4. 



LESSON LXXVI 

REDUNDANT VERBS 

The following table exhibits the redundant verbs as 
they are generally used, or as they may be used without 
grammatical impropriety. The preferable forms are placed 
first. 

LIST OF REDUNDANT VERBS 



The 


The Preterit The Imperfect The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Awake, 


awoke or awaked. 


awaking. 


awoke. 


Bend, 


bent or bended. 


bending. 


bent or bended. 


Bereave, 


bereft or bereaved. 


bereaving. 


, bereft or bereaved. 


Bet, 


bet or betted. 


betting. 


bet or betted. 


Blend, 


blended or blent, 


blending. 


blended or blent. 


Bless, 


blessed or blest. 


blessing, 


blessed or blest. 


Build, 


built or builded. 


building. 


built or builded. 


Burn, 


burned or burnt, 


burning, 


burned or burnt. 


Clothe, 


clothed or clad. 


clothing. 


clothed or clad. 


Curse, 


cursed or curst, 


cursing. 


cursed or curst. 


Dare, 


dared or durst. 


daring, 


dared. 


nig, 


dug or digged. 


digging. 


dug or digged. 


Dream, 


dreamed or dreamt 


, dreaming, 


dreamed or dreamt, 


Dress, 


dressed or drest. 


dressing. 


dressed or drest. 


Dwell, 


dwelt or dwelled. 


dwelling. 


dwelt or dwelled. 


Gold, 


gelded or gelt. 


gelding, 


gelded or gelt. 


Gild, 


gilded or gilt. 


gilding, 


gilded or gilt. 


Gird, 


girded or girt, 


girding. 


girded or girt. 


Grave, 


graved. 


graving. 


graven or graved. 


Hang, 


hanged or hung, 


hanging, 


hanged or hung. 



150 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



LESSON LXXVII 



The 


The Preterit 


The Imperfect The Perfect 


Present. 


OP Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Heave, 


Heaved or hove. 


heaving, 


heaved or hove. 


Hew, 


hewed. 


hewing. 


hewed or hewn. 


Kneel, 


knelt or kneeled. 


kneeling, 


knelt or kneeled. 


Knit, 


knitted or knit, 


knitting. 


knitted or knit. 


Lade, 


laded. 


lading, 


laden or laded. 


Lean, 


leaned or leant. 


leaning. 


leaned or leant. 


Leap, 


leaped or leapt. 


leaping. 


leaped or leapt. 


Learn, 


learned or learnt, 


learning, 


learned or learnt. 


Light, 


lighted or lit. 


lighting. 


lighted or lit. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mowing. 


mowed or mo\\Ti. 


Pen (to coop). 


penned or pent. 


I>enning, 


penned or pent. 


Quit, 


quitted or quit, 


quitting. 


quitted or quit. 


Reave, 


reft or reaved, 


reaving. 


reft or reaved. 


Rive, 


rived. 


riving, 


rived or riven. 


Saw, 


sawed. 


sawing. 


sawed or sa^A-n. 


Seethe, 


seethed or sod. 


seething. 


seethed or sodden. 


Sew, 


sewed. 


sewing, 


sewed or sewn. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaping. 


shaped or shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved. 


shaving. 


shaved or shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


shearing. 


sheared or shorn. 




LESSON 


LXXVIII 




Shine, 


Shone or shined. 


shining, 


shone or shined. 


Show, 


showed. 


showing. 


shoAA-n or showed. 


Slit, 


slit or slitted. 


slitting, 


slit or slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled or smelt. 


smelling, 


smelled or smelt. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowing. 


sown or sowed. 


Speed, 


sped or speeded, 


speeding. 


sped or speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled or spelt, 


spelling, 


spelled or spelt. 


Spill, 


spilled or spilt, 


spilling, 


spilled or spilt. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS 



151 



The 


The Preterit T 


'he Imperfect The Perfect 


Present. 


OR Past. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


Split, 


split or splitted, 


splitting, 


split or splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled or spoilt. 


spoiling, 


spoiled or spoilt. 


Stave, 


staved or stove. 


staving. 


staved or stove. 


Stay, 


stayed or staid, 


staying. 


stayed or staid. 


Strow, 


strowed,' 


strowing, 


strowed or strown. 


Sweat, 


sweat or sweated. 


sweating, 


sweat or sweated. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling. 


swelled or swollen. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thriving. 


thriven or thrived. 


Wet, 


wet or wetted, 


wetting, 


wet or wetted. 


Wont, 


wont, 


wonting. 


wont or wonted. 


Work, 


worked or wrought; 


, working. 


worked or wrought. 



Note. — The pupils should write sentences to illustrate the different 
uses of the redundant verbs in the same manner as was done under the 
irregular verbs. 

Some of the antiquated forms may be omitted, as they are inserted 
for reference. They are often found in poetry. 



LESSON LXXIX 
DEFECTIVE VERBS 

When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, 
the tenses usually derived from those parts are, of course, 
also wanting. All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, 
are defective, but, as they become parts of other verbs, 
they do not need the parts which are technicalh' said to be 
wanting. 

The following list contains all the defective ^Trbs, except 
methinks, with its preterit methought, which is impersonal 
and irregular (equivalent to it thinhi^ me — it seems to vie). 
Impersonal verbs are used only in the third person; as, it 
rains. 



152 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 



LIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VERBS 

TH.PHZ.KNT. THKJK.™ T„. P..,,.... Th._Ph.T.B,T 

Beware, Shall, should. 

Can, could. Will, would. 

May, might. Quoth, quoth. 

Must, must. Wis, wist. 

Ought, ought. Wit, wot. 



LESSON LXXX 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

Diagram the following sentences, and parse each verb: 
1. He might have done the Avork. 2. They could have gone home 
yesterday. 3. He went away in haste. 4. He will have finished 
the work before you return. 5. If I were you I would go to school. 

6. Read this letter, and you will understand why he cannot come. 

7. The truth should be told. 8. Smiling May has come, and the 
flowers are in bloom. 9. The grass looks green, and the birds are 
singing in the trees. 10. The mill pond was frozen over all win- 
ter. 11. Does your sister intend to go to Europe this year? 
12. Must you go so soon? 13. I would have told you, had I known 
it. 14. You shall not prevent him from going. 15. I shall go to 
New York City in the morning. 

The pupils should write sentences each containing an active 
verb as directed in the following: 

In the indicative and past tense; potential mood, preperfect 
tense; indicative, first-future; subjunctive, present; potential, pre- 
perfect; infinitive, jDresent. 

Write a sentence containing a passive verb in the indicative, 
present; the potential, preperfect; the first-future, jDresent. 

Write a question in the indicative, past tense; the potential, 
present; the indicative, preperfect. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 

1. Mention the four principal parts of a verb. 2. What 
is the difference between a regular and an irregular verb? 



PARTICIPLES— CLASSES 153 

3. What are the auxihary verbs? 4. Explain the difference 
between perfect and preperfect tense. 5. Give the definition 
of moods, and explain what is meant by being, action, passion, 
as used in the definition. 6. What is meant by the inflection 
of a verb? 7. What is the difference between the inflection 
and the modification of a verb? 



LESSON LXXXI 
PARTICIPLES -CLASSES 

-Verbs — ^ .— Participles- 



The Present. The Preterit. The Imperfect. The Perfect. 

1. Love, loved, loving, loved. 

2. Correct, corrected, correcting, corrected. 

3. Do, did, doing, done. 

4. She felt that in loving her boy so fondly she was liable 
to overlook his faults without correcting them. 

5. He, loved by his mother so fondly, felt that he should 
do all he could to please her; and, when corrected by her, 
he should feel that she was doing her duty to him; also, 
that it was done for his good. 

In 1, 2, and 3, there are four parts to each verb; but 
the third and fourth parts in each may be used as parti- 
ciples, either separately, or compounded with other verbs. 

In 4, loving and correcting are participles. 

In 5, loved and corrected are participles; but teas doing, 
composed of ivas and doing, is a verb ; also, the verb icas 
and the participle done, united form the compound was 
done. 

It is thus seen that the third and fourth parts of all com- 
plete verbs may be used separately as participles, or be 



154 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

compounded with verbs to make the compound form of 
the verb. 

The imperfect participle has two forms, active and pas- 
sive; as, loving (active); being loved (passive.) 

The imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in 
ing, and implies a confhiuance of the being, action, or pas- 
sion ; as, " He stood on the piazza talking to a man ; and, 
being impressed with his appearance, he employed him." 

The perfect participle is that which implies a previous 
completion of the being, action, or passion ; as, " Truth 
crushed to earth will rise again." 

The preperfect participle is that which takes the sign 
having, and implies a previous completion of the being, 
action, or passion ; as, 

1. After having paid the money, he returned home. 

2. Having been paid the money, he returned home. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write the participles of the verbs given below in the follow- 
ing form: 

Active. PAssI^^:. 

Imperfect. Writing. Imperfect. Being written. 

Perfect. Perfect. Written. 

Preperfect. Having written. Preperfect. Having been WTitten. 

Hear, talk, show, clothe, sow, work, think, keep, feed, give, hurt, 
wear, know, write, make, seek, speak. 

To each of these verbs ^vrite a sentence containing one or more 
participles. 

The English verb in the active form has two participles — 
the imperfect and the preperfect; and in the passive form, 
three — the imperfect, the perfect, and the preperfect. 

There are two classes of participles; namely, the par- 
ticiple participating in the properties of a verb and an 



PARTICIPLES— CLASSES 155 

adjective, and the one participating in the properties of a 
verb and a noun. 

The following are examples of each: 

VERB AND ADJECTIVE 

1. He came running very swiftly. 

2. She, dying, gave it to me. 

3. The enemy having been defeated, fled. 

4. She stood wringing her hands. 

5. Error wounded writhes in pain. 

6. The Justice read amused, amazed. 

VERB AND NOUN 

1. She is fond of reading good books. 

2. After having paid the money he retired. 

3. He was released without paying his ransom. 

4. Before leaving the city he paid his debts. 

5. In keeping His commandments there is great reward. 

Supply participles in the place of blanks in the following 
written exercises; 

1. He was engaged in Plato. 

2. She stood on the piazza to the boy. 

3. He stood at the grandeur of the scene before him. 

4. The selections by the children were listened to atten- 
tively. 

5. in church is an act of rudeness. 

6. history is time properly spent. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How many kinds of participles are there? 2. What is 
the imperfect participle? the preperfect participle? Give 
an example of each. 3. Which part of the verb may be used 
as participles? 4, How may they be compounded to form 
verbs? 



156 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GAMMMAR 

PARSING OF THE PARTICIPLE 

1. Mary is fond of reading history. 
Mary ^ ^ 




Reading is an imperfect participle, from read, read, reading, read; 
and is governed by the preposition of. 

Reading is here used like a noun in being governed by the preposition 
of, and like a verb in having the object history 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns or else are gov- 
erned by prepositions. 

2. I saw the horse running rapidly down the street. 

Running is an imperfect participle, from run, ran., running, run, and 
relates to horse. 

Running is here used like an adjective in relation to horse, and like a 
verb in expressing action. 

3. Being discovered, he made a hasty retreat. 

Being discovered is an imperfect participle, passive in use, from dis- 
cover, discovered, discovering, discovered, and relates to he. 

Here being is prefixed to discovered, making the passive form of the 
participle, being discovered. 



LESSON LXXXII 

ADVERBS-CLASSES 

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, 
adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. 

Adverbs of time are those which answer to the ques- 
tion, When? How long? How soon? How often? including 
these which ask. Adverbs of time may be subdivided as 
follows : 



ADVERBS— CLASSES 157 

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, instantly. 

2. Of time past; as, Already, lately, heretofore, since, ago. 

3. Of time to come; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth. 

4. Of time relative; as, When, then, before, after, while. 

5. Of time absolute; as, Always, ever, never. 

6. Of time repeated; as. Often, seldom, daily, thrice. 

7. Of the order of time ; as First, secondly, thirdly, etc. 

In 4, relative has reference to time past, present, or future, 
in a comparative sense ; relating to, not definite ; as, I shall 
go after I get through with this work. 

In 5, absolute means certain, positive, not limited; as, 
The seasons always follow one another in regular order. 

Write sentences each containing one or more of the follow- 
ing adverbs: 

Now, yet, instantly, lately, ago, hereafter, when, never, often, daily, 
first, secondly. 

1. What is an adverb of time? 2. What is meant by time 
present? past? to come? 3. What is meant by time rela- 
tive? absolute? time repeated? order of time? 

Note. — ^Time present may mean this moment, this hour, to-day, 
this week, this month, this year, or this century; that is, we ma}' con\- 
pare this week with the past week, or this year with the past year, 
etc. The object in having so many sentences written is to illustrate 
the use of words in their different relations with other words in sen- 
tences, and to facilitate the power of expression. 

ADVERBS OF PLACE 

Adverbs of place are those which answer to the ques- 
tion. Where? Whither? Whence? or Whereabouts? including 
these which ask. 

Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of place in which; as. Where, here, there, soyneichere. 

2. Of place to which; as. Whither, thither, hither. 

3. Of place from which; as, Whence, hence, thence. 

4. Of the order of place; as. First, secondly, thirdly, etc. 



158 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

1. What is an adverb of place? 2. How are they divided? 
3. What is the difference between an adverb of place and an 
adverb of time? 

Write sentences each containing one or more of the follow- 
ing adverbs: 

Where, there, somewhere, ivhither, hence, first, secondly. 



LESS(3N LXXXIII 

Diagram the following sentences and parse the adverbs: 

1. Nothing can ever justify ingratitude. 

2. Plants raised with tenderness are seldom strong. 

3. A covetous person is always in want. 

4. Where did you go yesterday? 

5. He came here from New York. 

6. Where are you going? 

7. Whither goest thou? 

Note. — Where is now generally used instead of whither; but in 
poetry whither is often used. 

ADVERBS OF DEGREE 

Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the ques- 
tion, Hoiv much? How little? or to the idea of more or less. 
Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of excess or abundance; as, Much, chiefly, fully. 

2. Of equality; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so, as. 

3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, Little, scarcely, hardly. 

4. Of quantity; as, Hoiv, ever, so, somewhat. 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of each of the adverbs 
in 1, 2, and 3. 

ADVERBS OF MANNER 

Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the ques- 
tion, How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show 
how a subject is regarded. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 159 

Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of quality; as Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, and many 
others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. 

2. Of affirmation; as, Verily, truly, indeed, surely. 

3. Of negation; as, Not, nowise. 

4. Of doubt; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance. 

5. Of mode; as, Thus, somehow, like, else, otherwise. 

6. Of cause; as, Why, wherefore, therefore. 

Observations: Sometimes here, there, and where are compounded 
with prepositions; as, Hereby, whereby, whereof. Compounds of this 
kind are generally considered adverbs. 

Write sentences to illustrate the use of the adverbs in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
and 6. 

1. What is an adverb of degree? of manner? 2. Tell the 
difference between an adverb of degree and one of manner. 
3. Give a sentence to illustrate the use of each. 

Write sentences each containing one of the following ad- 
verbs: Much, fully, sufficiently, little, scarcely, how, some- 
what, tridy, surely, possibly, not, somehow, therefore. 

Diagram the following sentences and parse the adverbs : 

1. Hear patiently if thou wouldst speak well. 

2. He that hoists too much sail runs a risk of oversetting. 

3. Of all tame animals the flatterer is the most mischievous. 

4. He who has not virtue is not truly wise. 

5. Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 



LESSON LXXXIV 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 

Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, 
and serve to connect the clauses of a sentence, as well as to 
express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or man- 
ner. Adverbs that are so used are called Conjunctive 
ADVERBS ; as, When, where, after, before, since, etc. 



160 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Put the following sentences into diagram and parse the 
adverbs : 

1. They feared when they heard that they were Romans. 

2. When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure. 

3. Make hay while the sun shines. 

4. He came home before the shower reached us, 

5. I will follow where you dare to lead. 

6. He came directly home after he had finished his work. 
Parsing : When is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates to heard; 

and the clause which follows modifies feared in the principal clause. 

MODIFICATIONS 

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
compared after the manner of adjectives; as, Soon, sooner, 
soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; long, longer, longest. 

The following are irregularly compared: Well, better, best; badly, 
or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; far, farther, 
farthest; forth, further, furthest. 

Most adverbs of quality will admit the comparative adverbs 
more and most, less and least, before them ; as. Wisely, more wisely, 
most wisely; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. 

Diagram the following sentences and parse the adverbs: 

1. Few shall part where many meet. 

2. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 

3. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

4. It was the time when lilies blow. 

5. The dew falls after the sun has set. 

6. Now is done thy long day's work. 

7. The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 

1. Into how many general classes are adverbs divided? 
2. Define each class. 3. How does a conjunctive adverb 
differ from other adverbs? 4. Compare Soon, often, long, 
v^ell, badly, little, much, far, forth. 5. Compare diminutively 
Wisely, culpably. 



CONJUNCTIONS— CLASSES 161 

LESSON LXXXV 

CONJUNCTIONS-CLASSES 

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copu- 
lative and DISJUNCTIVE. Some of each of these sorts are 

CORRESPONSIVE. 

1. "He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall 
readily grant it." 

2. "Be not overcome (by) evil, hut overcome evil with good." 

3. "John came neither eating nor drinking." 

In 1, there are three clauses: 
(a) He and I shall not dispute. 
(6) He has any choice, 
(c) I shall readily grant it. 

Note. — The comiectives are for and if. In the first clause, and is 
used to connect he and /, which form the compound subject. It de- 
notes addition of meaning; that is, that the two subjects, he and / 
must be taken together as the subject of shall dispute. For is used to 
connect the clause he and I shall not dispute and the compound clause 
/ shall readily grant it, if he has any choice. It denotes a cause or 
reason why they will not dispute. // is used to connect the two 
clauses / shall readily grant it and he has any choice. These three con- 
junctions, thus used, are called copulative conjunctions. 

A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes 
an addition, a cause, or a supposition. 

In 2, but connects the two clauses, Be not overcome by 
evil, and overcome evil with good. It denotes opposition of 
meaning in the two sentences, and is, therefore, called a 
disjunctive conjunction. 

A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes 
opposition of meaning. 



162 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

In 3, neither, a conjunction, refers to 7ior as the con- 
necting word. 

N^or connects eating and drinking; and, because the two 
words are so used, they are called corresponsive con- 
junctions. 

The CORRESPONSIVE CONJUNCTIONS are those which are 
used in pairs, so that one refers to the other. 

Diagrams for the three sentences representing the copula- 
tive, disjunctive, and corresponsive conjunctions are given 
on p. 163. 

The following are the principal conjunctions: 

1. Copulative: And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, 
since, seeing, so. 

2. Disjunctive: Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, 
yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding. 

3. Corresponsives: Both — and; as — as; as — so; if— then; either — 
or; neither— nor; whether — or; though or although — yet. 

Diagram the f olio win i; sentences and parse the conjunc- 
tions : 

1. The earth, the air, and the water teem with life. 

2. Music refines, purifies, elevates, and cheers the mind. 

3. The horse hearing the train, turned, looked, and ran away. 

4. James will either go in the morning or stay another week. 

5. Neither James nor John was at church. 

6. He came home yesterday and went away this afternoon. 

7. The distance is not great; you can ride or walk. 

8. Darius did not go yesterday, because he did not feel well. 

9. Contemjjt leaves a deeper scar than anger. 

10. Vices, though near relations, are all at variance. 

11. Doubts should not excite contention, but inquiry. 

12. Both the ten- and the eiglit-syllable verses are iambics. 

13. Duly appreciate your privileges and improve them. 

Write five sentences, each of which will contain one or 
more conjunctions in classes 1, 2, and 3. 



(1) 



CONJUNCTIONS— CLASSES 
He 



shall dispute 



163 




shall grant 



he 



j^\ 



has 



choice 



(2) (you) / - \he overcome 

^^evil 



bht 
iCyou) 



overcome 



evil 



with , 
good 



(3) 



John 




164 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON LXXXVI 

PREPOSITIONS 

Prepositions are words used to express relation. 
They are neither principal parts nor adjuncts in a sentence. 
They introduce phrases that are generally adjective or 
adverbial in office. 

1. Mr. Thomas is a man of good principles. 

2. It is good for food. 

3. The tree stands on the hill. 

4. I saw the horse running doxtn the street. 

5. Charles is fond of reading Plato. 

Note. — The preposition always expresses a relation between the ob- 
ject and the word to which the prepositional phrase is an adjunct. 

Thus in 1, of expresses a relation between man and prin- 
ciples; and the phrase of good principles is called an adjec- 
tive phrase. 

In 2, the phrase for food is an adverbial phrase used as 
an adjunct of good. In 4, the phrase doum the street is 
adverbial, modifying running. In 5, of reading Plato is 
an adverbial phrase, modifying fond. In this phrase, of 
shows the relation between fond and reading. Plato is 
here the object of the imperfect transitive participle 
reading. 

The following are the principal simple prepositions: 

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid or amidst, 
among or amongst, around, at, athwart; before, behind, below, beneath, 
beside or besides, betiveen or betwixt, beyond, by; concerning; down, 
during; except, excepting; for, from; in, into; notwithstanding; of, 
off, on, over; past; round; since; through, throughout, till, to, touch' 
ing, toward or towards; under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon; 
with, within, without. 



PREPOSITIONS 165 

Note. — The words in the preceding list when used in a sentence 
are generally prepositions, but when any of them are employed without 
a subsequent term of relation they are adverbs. For, when it signifies 
because, is a conjunction; without, when used for unless, and notwith- 
standing, when placed before a nominative, are called conjunctions also. 

Two or more words are sometimes used as a compound 
preposition, being combined so as to express a single rela- 
tion ; as in the following examples : 

"Lambeth is over against Westminster Abbey." 
"And jrom before the lustre of her face." 

" Trochaic verse consists of from one to three feet." The meaning 
is, Trochaic verse consists of feet ranging from one foot to three feet. 

Copy the following sentences, supply the necessary prep- 
ositions, and in class exercise tell the use of each preposition; 
also tell whether the phrase in each case is adjective or ad- 
verbial. 

1. They marched the enemy the break 

day. 2. Plead the innocent. 3. Live in harmony 

nature. 4. Keep the bounds propriety 



your actions others. 5. Contend not trifles. 

6. Many fail grasping things their reach. 

7. In passing the road the woods he found that he 

was ■ — ■ two fires. 8. He walked the lane the hill 

the woods and came back the meadow the 

house. 

Observe the use of the prepositions in the following sen- 
tences and diagram each one: 

L James divided the apples among the boys. 

2. He divided the money between the two boys. 

3. James was struck by his pla)'mate. 

4. The apple was cut tvith a knife. 

5. The book lay on the table. 

6. He placed the book upon the shelf. 

7. He put the book into the bookcase. 

8. He walked around in the room. 

9. He walked into the room. 



166 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

10. He passed along through the hall into the room. 

11 He made the statement over his owti signature. 

12. I agree vrith him. 

13. I differ with him. 

14. I differ /ro??i him. 



LESSON LXXXVII 
INTERJECTIONS 

1. "Those were happy days; but, alas! they are no more." 

2. "Pshaw! never mind it." " Good night! " 

Interjections are uttered, when the mind is suddenly 
or greatly excited, to express some strong feeling or sudden 
emotion. They have no grammatical relation to other 
words in a sentence, and are therefore always independent. 

In 1, alas is an interjection signifying grief or sorrow; 
it is used independently. 

In 2, pshaw is an interjection expressing contempt; and 
good night is an interjection used in parting or leaving. 

The following are the principal interjections arranged 
according to the emotions which they are generally intended 
to indicate : 

1. Joy: eigh! hey! io! 2. Sorrow: oh! ah! alas! alack! welladay! 
3. Wonder: heigh! ha! strange! 4. "Wishing or earnestness: O! 
5. Pain: oh! ah! eh! 6. Contempt : pugh ! poh ! pshaw ! pish ! tush ! 
tut! 7. Aversion: f oh! fie! off! begone !avaunt! 8. Calling aloud : 
ho! soho! hollo! 9. Exultation: aha! huzza! heyday! hurrah! 
10. Laughter : ha ! ha ! ha ! 11. Salutation: welcome! hail! all hail! 
12. CaUing attention: lo! behold! look! see! hark! 13. Calling to 
silence: hush! hist! mum! 14. Surprise: oh! ha! hah! what! 
15. Languor: heigh-ho! 16. Stopping: avast! whoa! 



CAPITALS 167 

A noun or pronoun is sometimes independent with or 
without an interjection; that is, it is neither the subject 
nor the object of a verb, participle, or preposition; as, 

"0 thou, who rulest the heavens and the earth." 

O Henry, look and see if they are coming. 

A pronoun so used should have the form of the nomina- 
tive case. 

EXERCISE 

Diagram the following sentences and parse the interjections: 
1. Alas! how we have been betrayed! 2. Ah! fcAV shall part 
where many meet! 3. Poh! never trouble thy head with such 
fancies. 4. " ! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos ! " 
5. "O Liberty! how many crimes have been committed in thy 
name!" 6. Hark! the trumpet sounds! 7. Behold! what a 
beautiful sight is there! 8. "Avaunt! and quit my sight." 9. 
Pshaw! this is contemptible. 

GENERAL CLASS TALK IN REVIEW 

1. Describe the classes of participles and tell how they 
differ from verbs. 

2. Describe the classes of conjunctions. 

3. Describe the classes of adverbs. 

4. Describe the preposition. 

5. Describe the interjection. 



LESSON LXXXVIII 
CAPITALS 

It is very important that capitals should be properly 
employed; and the pupil should become so familiar with 
the following rules that he can apply them in written com- 
position. 

RULES 

Rule I. Titles of Books 
I. The titles of books and the heads of their principal 
divisions should be printed in capitals; as (see any book 



168 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

which you have for examples), INTERMEDIATE LAN- 
GUAGE ; THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
2. When books are merely mentioned, the principal words 
in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are 
small; as, "Pope's Essay on Man"; " Westlake's How to 
Write Letters " ; "Josephus' History of the Jewish War." 

Rule II. First Words 
The first word of every distinct sentence, or any clause 
separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a 
capital; as, 

1. Can you repeat Rule II? 

2. Be sure that you understand the meaning of each word in 
the rule. 

3. Improve your time. 

4. " Parents should teach their children : 

"1. The duty of obedience; 

"2. The importance of industry; 

"3. The need of perseverance." 

Rule III. Names of the Deity 
Every name of the Deity should begin with a capital ; as, 
God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, Divine 
Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the 
Great First Cause. 

Remark. — Pronouns referring to the Deity need not be written with 
a capital unless they are used emphatically; as, "The Deity revealed 
himself unto Moses." "Shall He who created the ear not hear?" 
"The hope of my spirit turns trembling to thee." — Moore. 

Rule IV. Proper Names 
Titles of office or honor and proper names of every de- 
scription .should begin with capitals; as. Chief Justice 
Hale, James, London, the Park, the Albion, the Sun, The 
Tribune, the Spectator, the Thames, the Hudson, the School 
Bulletin, the Great American Tea Company. (See pages 
1-40 



CAPITALS 169 

Rule V. Objects Personified 
The name of an object personified, when it conveys an 
idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 

1. "Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come." 

2. "Laziness travels so slow that Poverty soon overtakes him." 

3. "O Solitude, where are thy charms 

That sages have seen in thy face? " — Cowper. 

4. "The very Day tm-ned to his rest." 

5. "Lo stern-clad War his gorgeous standard Tea,vs."— Rogers. 
In 1, the word Spring, the name of one of the seasons, 

is spoken of as if it were a person with the power of speech, 
and is said to be personified. 

Sometimes hfe and personahty are, in our imagination, 
attributed to inanimate things and the power of speech 
to animals. This is called personification, and the word 
which is the name of the object so personified should begin 
with a capital. 

Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we 
ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings 
or abstract qualities ; as, " The Worm, aware of his intent, 
harangued him thus, right eloquent." "Upon this Fancy 
began again to bestir herself." 

Here Worm is spoken of as having the power of speech 
like a person ; and Fancy, an abstract noun, is represented 
as having the power of action. 

Rule VI. Words Derived 

Words derived from proper names of persons or places 
should begin with capitals ; as, 

Newtonian, from Newton ; Grecian, from Greece ; Ro- 
man, from Rome ; American, from America. (See page 8i.) 

Rule VII. I and 
The words I and should always be capitals; as, " Out of 
the depths have I cried unto thee, Lord." 



170 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Rule VIII, Poetry 
Every line of poetry, except what is regarded as making 
but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a 
capital ; as, 

"Those Christians best deserve the name 
Who studiously make peace their aim." 

"To others do (the law is not severe) 
What to thyself thou wishest to be done." 

Rule IX. Examples 
A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation 
should begin with a capital ; as, 

1. "No man can be happy if self is the sole o])ject of his thoughts 
and wishes." 

2. "Remember this maxim: 'Know thyself.'" 

3. " The dying Lawrence exclaimed, ' Don't give up the ship ! ' " 

4. An old writer says, "By doing nothing, men learn to do 
evil." 

5. Solomon said, "Pride goeth before destruction." 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Copy the following sentences and, in class exercise, give 
reasons for the use of capitals in each example : 

1. Bancroft's "History of New York" is a very complete work. 

2. Goldsmith's "Deserted Village" is a poem wliich appeals to 
the feelings. 

3. Cooper's "The Last of the Mohicans" is an attractive book 
for young people. 

4. Whittier wrote "Skipper Iveson's Ride." 

5. Milton's " Paradise Lost " should be read by every student. 

6. Hawthorne was the author of "Tanglewood Tales." 

7. Miss Alcott's "Little Women" is an interesting httle book. 

8. John Marshall was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the 
United States. 

9. Greater New York consists of the Borough of Manhattan 
and the Bronx, the Borough of Brooklyn, the Borough of Queens, 
and the Borough of Richmond. 



PUNCTUATION 171 

10. Sir Walter Scott was the author of the "Lady of the Lake." 

11. Pope says, "Order is Heaven's First Law." 

12. "Be modest in speech, but excel in action" is said to be an 
old Chinese proverb. 



LESSON LXXXIX 
PUNCTUATION 

A review of the directions for punctuation is given 
here. It is impossible to give complete instruction and 
have you understand the reasons for such punctuation 
until you have learned more about grammar. The fol- 
lowing directions will be of assistance and afford a ready 
reference in composition work. When you are in doubt 
about the use of a comma, omit it. 

THE COMMA 

The comma is used to separate the simple clauses of a 
compound sentence ; as, 

1. Mary is diligent, but her sister is idle. 

2. He does not complain, though he suffers much from j^ain. 

3. "Art is long, and time is fleeting." 

4. "Virtue is its own reward, and vice brings its own punish- 
ment." 

The comma is used in a series of three or more words of 
the same construction; as, 

1. Days, months, and years glide away. 

2. Pupils should be diligent, earnest, and attentive. 

3. George, James, and Henry took a walk. 

4. The boys and girls laugh, talk, and play. 

5. Peaches, pears, apples, and plums are delicious fruits. 

The comma is used to set off expressions containing a 
word or words in apposition ; as, 

1. Nero, the Roman emperor, was very cruel. 

2. The book may be fovmd at Brcntano's, the bookseller. 



172 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

3. Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, hved in a tub. 

4. "Mahomet was a native of Mecca, a city in Arabia." 

5. Harvey, a celebrated physician, discovered the circulation of 
the blood. 

6. Napoleon, Emperor of France, died at St. Helena. 

The comma is required when a verb is understood ; as, 

1. "Industry brings pleasure; idleness, pain." 

2. "Passion overcomes shame; boldness, fear; and madness, 
reason." 

3. "War is the law of violence; peace, the law of love." 

Independent words, phrases, and clauses require a comma ; 



1. Charles, you may tell what you know about the use of the 
comma. 

2. " Almet," said he, "remember what thou hast seen." 

3. Generally speaking, that is true. 

4. "To confess the truth, I was wrong." 

The comma is used to separate dependent clauses used 
descriptively; as, 

1. Mr. Smith, who was very ill, has recovered. 

2. Washington, who was a true patriot, saved his country. 

3. I, who was wholly innocent, was condemned. 

4. Caesar, who won so many victories, was assassinated. 

The comma is not required when the dependent clause is 
used as a modifying adjunct ; as, 

1. A boy who tells tlie truth should be believed. 

2. He that walketh uprightly walketh surely. 

3. A man who acts honorably will be respected. 

4. A triangle is a figure that has three sides. 

5. They who do wrong repent it sooner or later. 
Give a review talk about the conmia. 



THE SEMICOLON 173 

LESSON XC 

THE SEMICOLON 

The semicolon is used to separate parts of a sentence less 
closely related than those which require a comma ; as, 

1. "Keep thy heart with all dihgence; for out of it are the issues 
of Ufe." — Bible. 

2. "We poets in our youth begin in gladness; 

But thereof come in the end despondency and madness." 

Wordsworth. 

The semicolon should be used when the related parts 
have a comma; as, 

1. "Napoleon was an early riser; so were Frederick the Great, 
Charles the Twelfth, and Washington." 

2. "Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits,. and ap- 
pearance; but by the character of their lives and conversation, 
and by their works." 

3. "There is a fierce conflict of good and evil in the world; but 
good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last." 

The semicolon should be used before " as, viz., to wit, 
namely, i.e., that is," when they precede an enumeration 
of particulars; as, 

1. Many English words are spelled in more tlian one way; as, 
sceptic, skeptic; centre, center. 

2. The history of the world has been divided by some men 
into four periods or ages; viz., the golden age, the silver age, the 
brazen age, and the iron age. 

3. I purchased the following articles from tlie store; namely, 
sugar, tea, coffee, and rice. 



174 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAAIMAR 

LESSON XCI 

THE COLON 

The colon should be used after a complete clause pre- 
ceding an additional and explanatory remark ; as, 

1. "Avoid evil-doers: in such society a man may become 
ashamed of himself." 

2. " See that moth fluttering around tlie candle : man of pleasure, 
behold thy image." 

3. "Avoid affectation: it is a contemptible weakness." 

The colon should be used after the words of address at 
the beginning of a speech ; as, 

Mr. president, ladies and gentlemen: We are here this evening 
to discuss those matters which concern the public welfare, etc. 

A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb or 
conjunction is generally preceded by a colon; as, 

" Always remember this ancient proverb: ' Know Thyself.' " 

THE PERIOD 

Every distinct declarative and imperative sentence should 
be followed by a period ; as, 

1. "Procrastination is the thief of time." 

2. "There is no excellence without great labor." 

3. "Make me a child again, just for to-night." — Allen. 

4. "Make yourself necessary to some one." — Emerson. 

The period should be placed after an abbreviated word ; as, 

1. Chas., for Charles; Wm., for WiUiam; A. D., for Anno 
Domini, Pro tem., for Pro tempore; Ult., for Ultimo; etc, for 
and so forth. 

2. Dr. R. H. Marsh, F.R.S.; Geo. Stevens, Esq.; Horace 
Jones, Jun., M.D., LL.D. 

3. The train leaves Weehawken at 6:15 p.m., and arrives at 
Liberty at 9:45 p.m. 

Give a review talk on the semicolon, colon, and period. 



THE INTERROGATION POINT. 175 

LESSON XCII 
THE INTERROGATION POINT 

The interrogation point is used to denote a question ; as, 

1. "In life, can love be bought with gold? 

Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?" — Johnson. 

2. I was asked, Will you stop for dinner? 

3. Do you think we see ourselves as others see us? 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT 

The exclamation point is used when a sentence denotes 
some strong or sudden emotion ; as, 

1. "How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood!" 

2. "Alas, poor Yorick!" "Alas for the man who has not 
learned to work!" 

3. "Oh that a man should put an enemy into his mouth to 
steal away his brains!" 

4. "Bah! that's the third umbrella gone since Christmas. 
What were you to do! Why, let him go home in the rain, to be 
sure." 

5. Stop! Look! Listen! 

6. "All hail, thou noble land, our fathers' native land!" 

THE DASH 

The dash is used to denote a break or an unexpected 
pause; as, 

1. If 3^ou will give me your attention, I will show you — but 
stop! I do not know that 3'ou wish to see. 

2. I take — ch! oh! — as much exercise eh! — as I can. 

The dash is used before a word or phrase repeated in an 
emphatic manner ; as, 

"You speak like a boy — like a boy who (liiiiks the old, gnarled 
oak can be twisted as easily as a young sapling." 



176 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
THE CURVES OR MARKS OF PARENTHESIS 

The marks of parenthesis are used to inclose parenthetical 
expressions ; as, 

How often do you see a gentleman (if gentleman ho can be 
called) commit an act of rude selfishness in a social gathering 
or public meeting! 

BRACKETS 

The brackets are often used to inclose some correction 
or explanation ; as, 

"He [who?] was of a different opinion." 

Give a general review of this lesson. 



LESSON XCIII 
QUOTATIONS 

1. " 'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." — Goldsmith. 

2. "She thought the Isle that gave her birth 

The sweetest, wildest, land on earth." — Hogg. 

3. "Never utter a falsehood, even for truth's sake." 

4. "Always strive to follow the golden rule: 'Do unto others 
as ye would have others do unto you.'" 

5. "There are three cardinal virtues ; faith, hope, and charity." 

6. "One to-day," says Frankhn, "is worth two to-morrows." 

7. "I will not," said John, "degrade myself by teUing a false- 
hood." 

8. A period is used after an abbreviated word; as, "John C. 
Smith;" "Gibbon's Hist., vol. i, p. 155." 

9. Henry Clay said that he would rather be right than be presi- 
dent. 

10. Henry Clay said, " I would rather be right than be president." 

The first three sentences are the exact words quoted 
from other authors. 

In 4, there is a quotation inclosed within another quo- 



THE APOSTROPHE 177 

tation, and the inclosed quotation has only single quota- 
tion marks. 

In 5, there is a single quotation. Observe, however, 
that there is a semicolon (;) after virtues, and that faith, 
hope, and charity are used to explain, or tell what is meant 
by, three cardinal virtues. 

In 6, the quotation is separated by a remark. 

In 7, a remark is also thrown in between the parts of 
the quotation. 

In 8, the quotation is used as an illustration of the use 
of a period. 

In 9, there is a statement of what Henry Clay said in 
substance, but not his exact words. 

In 10, the exact words of Henr}^ Clay are quoted. 

Quotation marks (" ") distinguish words that are taken 
from some other author or speaker. A quotation within a 
quotation is marked with single points, which are placed 
within the others. 



LESSON XCIV 
THE APOSTROPHE 

1. The boy's hat is torn. 

2. A mother's love and a father's care are Nature's gifts for 
man's benefit. 

3. "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Bcattic. 

4. 'Tis education that forms the common mind. 

5. "Just as the twig is bent the tree's incHnod." 

6. "Or surely you'll grow double." 

7. "I'll put a girdle round about the earth in forty minutes." — 
Shakespeare. 

8. Aren't you ready to go with us? 



178 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

9. James doesn't know his lesson. 

10. Where there's a will there's a way. 

IL This isn't right. 

12. O please don't go now. 

13. Henry hasn't been to scliool to-day. 

14. It is better not to use "I can't" for "I'll try." 

In sentences 1, 2, and 3, the apostrophe is used to 
denote the possessive case. 

In sentences 4-14, the apostrophe is used to denote 
the omission of one or more letters. 

Sometimes we hear persons use expressions which are 
not grammatical, and exhibit an ignorance of the correct 
use of language. 

A few such expressions are here given: 

1. I haint seen him for I haven't seen him. 

2. It aint right " It isn't right. 

3. He don't know " He doesn't know. 

4. Aint you going? " Aren't you going? 

5. It's him " It is he; or, It is James, or whatever 
name belongs to the person. 

The apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive 
case of a noun or the elision of one or more letters of a 
word; as. 

The girVs regard for her parents' advice saved her 
much trouble. — 'gari, lov'd, e'en, thro'; for began, loved, 

even, through. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell the use of the apostrophe in the words in the first 
three lines. 2. Give the spelling of each word in which an 
apostrophe is used in lines from 4 to 14. 3. Define apostrophe. 



LETTER-WRITING 179 

LESSON XCV 
LETTER- WRITING 

A letter from a young girl at a summer resort in the 
country to her cousin in the city. 

(Heading.) 
Liberty, N. Y., 
(Introduction.) July 1, 1902. 

Miss Millie Irwin, 

623 Madison Ave., New York City, N. Y. 
Dear Millie, 

Mother and I have been here at this place one week to-day, 
and we are, indeed, very pleasantly situated. 

I arose very early this morning. The sun was just rising, and the 

air was fresh and cool. The flowers in the yard looked very pretty 

and the birds in the trees were singing their joyous morning songs. 

Some of them w^ere plucking (stealing) cherries from the old 

cherry tree in the yard behind the house. 

I hope that you will come up soon, so that we may have a 
lively, pleasant, enjoyable summer vacation together. 

Please write me as soon as you receive this, and do come up 
this week if possible. 

With kind regards to all I remain 

(Conclusion.) 
Your loving cousin, 

Jennie Hawthorne. 
Envelope Addressed 



r 


tt,. 



180 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

A letter consists of five parts; namely, the heading, 
the INTRODUCTION, the BODY, the CONCLUSION, and the 
SUPERSCRIPTION (on the envelope). 

The HEADING consists of the name of the place at which 
the letter is written and the date. 

The INTRODUCTION includes the name of the person to 
whom the letter is sent with the address, and under this 
the salutation. 

The BODY of the letter is the chief part, containing 
what is designed to be said to the person to whom the 
letter is sent. 

The CONCLUSION consists of a formal expression of 
respect, compliment, or endearment, and, underneath, the 

SIGNATURE. 

The SUPERSCRIPTION is the statement on the envelope 
of the name and address of the person to whom the letter 

is sent. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Copy the letter, observing carefully the position of each 
of the parts of the letter and the punctuation. 2. Copy the 
description of the letter. 3. Write the superscription on a 
piece of paper the size of an envelope. Orally, give a general 
description of the letter. 



LESSON XCVI 

LETTER- WRITING (Continued) 

THE HEADING AND rUNCTUATION 

(Heading.) 
Liberty, N. Y., 
July 1, 1902. 
This heading, "Lil)erty, N. Y.," tolls where the letter was 
written, and "July 1, 1902," tells when it was A\Titten. When 



LETTER-WRITING 181 

a person answers a letter, he looks at the heading to see where 
to direct his answer. 

The parts of the heading are grammatically arranged. Thus, 
"Liberty, N. Y., July 1, 1902," is equal to "This is written at 
Liberty, which is in the State of N. Y., on the first day of July, in 
the year 1902." Omit the Avords in italics and you have the 
abbreviated form, or heading, with the proper punctuation, given 
at the top of the letter. 

The heading should always be written a line or two from the 
top of the page, and should be commenced so that it may end 
near the edge of the sheet at the right. 

Observe the following models, and study carefully the arrange- 
ment, CAPITALS, and punctuation. 

MODELS 

(1) Gettysburg, Adams Co., Pa., 

Sept. 20, 1902. 

(2) Mount Holyoke Seminary, 

South Haclley, Mass., 

Sept. 10, 1902. 

(3) 222 Madison Ave., New York, 

June 23, 1902. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write the following headings, and arrange each in a proper 
manner, paying particular attention to capitals, punctuation, 
and position. 

1. Rochester, N. Y., Sept. 25, 1903. 

2. 23 Exeter St., Boston, Mass., July 4, 1902. 

3. American House, Reading, Pa., July 10, 1903. 

4. Hotel St. Denis, Broadway and 10th St., New York City, N. Y. 

5. Fifth Avenue Hotel, cor. 23d St., Broadway & Fifth Ave., 
New York City, N. Y. 

6. 109 Wabash Ave., Chicago, 111., IMarch 2, 1902. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliere and how should the licadiiig of a letter bo writ- 
ten? 2. Describe the jninctuation })()ints used in the head- 



182 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

ing. 3. Give reasons for the use of each capital in models 
1, 2, and 3. Give a general talk about the heading of a letter. 



LESSON XCVII 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 
THE INTRODUCTION 

The introduction in all business forms and formal 
letters consists of the name and address and salutation. 
In familiar letters, frequently, the salutation alone is 
used in the introduction, and the name and address are 
written at the bottom of the letter at the left of the signa- 
ture, or omitted altogether. 

In the introduction the address consists of the name 
and title and place of residence of the person addressed. 
That may be his home, boarding place, post-office, or 
place of business. 

The ordinary titles are Miss, Mrs., Mr., and sometimes 
Esq. The title of Esq. seems properly to belong to a 
Justice of the Peace. 

FORMS FOR INTRODUCTION OF LETTERS 

MODEL 1.— SOCIAL FORM (FAMILIAR) 

My dear Daughter, 

Since I last wrote you, Jennie has come home, etc. 

MODEL 2.— SOCLVL FORM 

My dear Mr. Barker, 

Your very welcome letter just received, etc. 



LETTER-WRITING 183 

MODEL 3. — SOCIAX, FORM (fORMAL) 

Mrs. Hanna Moore. 
Dear Madam, 

Please accept thanks for your beautiful bouquet 
of flowers sent me, etc. 

MODEL 4.— BUSINESS FORM 

Jamestown, N. Y., 

Oct. 3, 1902. 
To the Editor of the New York Tribune, 

New York City, N. Y. 
Dear Sir, 

Inclosed find two dollars, for which please send me the 
Semi-weekly Tribune one year. 

Yours respectfully, 

James Warner. 

MODEL 5. — BUSINESS FORM 

Mr. J. H. Weaver, 

Dubuque, Iowa. 
Dear Sir, 
I intend to go west in a few daj^s, etc. 

Great irregularity prevails in the punctuation for the 
introduction. Some persons use the comma, some the 
colon, after the salutation. 

Suppose we say: 
Rev. John J. Robinson, 

22 Main St., Meridcn, Ct. 
Dear Sir, 

If the construction be written in full, we would say: 
"This is written to the 'Reverend John J. Robinson, u'ho 
lives at 22 Main St., in the city of IMeriden, ichich is in 
the State of Connecticut. 



184 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Omit the italicized words and you have the name, the 
residence, the sakitation, and the punctuation as given above. 

QUESTIONS 

1, What are the parts of the introduction of a letter? 
2. What punctuation point should be used at the end of 
the address? after the salutation? 3. What is the difference 
between the social form and the business form? 4. Give a 
general description of the introduction of a letter. 



LESSON XCVIII 
LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 

The BODY of the letter should begin under the end of 
the salutation, and a margin should be left on the left- 
hand side of each page. The margin should be kept even. 

Of course letters should be divided into paragraphs, 
like any other piece of composition; and great pains 
should be taken to write as plainly as possible. 

The CONCLUSION, or the closing and the signature, 
should be written neatly and plainly. A person's signa- 
ture may be written so as to seem plain enough to the 
writer, and yet be a Chinese puzzle to every one else. 

A lady, in writing a business letter, should sign her 
name so as to indicate her sex. If her name was Jennie 
Wilson, she might sign Jennie Wilson or Miss J. Wilson ; 
if married, and her husband's name was Henry R. Warren, 
then sign Mrs. Henry R. Warren. If she became a widow, 
then sign Mrs. Jennie Warren. 



LETTER-WRITING 185 

Observe the forms and punctuation of the conclusion : 
Yours respectfully, 

James Canfield. 
Your loving daughter, 

Evelyn Mulholland. 
Very truly yours, 

Clara Stoneman. 
Yours truly, 

John Judson. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the conclusion? 2. What is the signature? 
3. Which is the principal part of the letter? Why? 4. How 
should a lady sign her name in a business letter? 5. Why 
should a letter be written neatly and plainly? 6. Why should 
the signature be written with care? 7. Give a general de- 
scription of the body and conclusion of a letter. 



LESSON XCIX 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 

THE SUPERSCRIPTION 

In directing letters, if the person lives in the country 
the proper order is — 

Name and Title, 

Post Office, 
County, 

State. 
If the person lives in a city, the order is — 
Name and Title, 

Number and Street, 
City, 

State. 



186 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Sometimes a letter is addressed to one person in care 
of another. The superscription may be written accord- 
ing to the directions given here, and in addition write 

in the left-hand lower corner Care of , giving name 

of the person. 

In addressing a firm or company, the term Messrs. 
should be used before the name. Thus, 

Messrs. William Wood & Co., 

51 Fifth Ave., 
New York City, 
N. Y. 
If 5^ou were to write a letter to the Governor of the 
State of New York, you should direct as follows: 
Hon. B. B. Odcll, 
Governor of the State of New York, 

Albany, 
N. Y. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

1. Direct an envelope to a distant friend, — to some pub- 
lishing house, — to your mother, — to your brother, — to your 
cousin. 

Use an envelope, or use a piece of paper of the size of 
an envelope. 

LESSON C 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 

The following is a summary of the usual forms of ad- 
dresses in writing letters: 

1. For Very Formal Letters: 
Mr. Thomas H. Benton, Mrs. F. A. Tompkins, 

Oneida, Brookline, 

N. Y. Mass. 

Sir, Madam, 



LETTER-WRITING 187 

2. Ordinary Style; 

Mr. W. W. Williams, Mrs. E. A. Curtis, 

White Lake, Saugerties, 

N. Y. N. Y. 

Dear Sir, Dear Madam, 

or or 

My dear Sir, My dear Madam, 

3. Implying Greater Intimacy: 

Dear Mr. Brown, Dear Mrs. Constance, 

or or 

My dear Mr. Brown, My dear Mrs. Constance, 

In No. 3, the name should be written at the bottom, 
at the left, as follows: 
Mr. J. H. Brown, 

Rockland, 

N. Y. 
Other forms of address are used according to circum- 
stances, varying with the persons addressed and the 
terms of intimacy; such as, 

A. B. Wilson, Esq.; W. S. Webster, M.D.; Dr. John 
Dwyer; B. C. Palmer, LL.D.; Rev. H. J. Davis, or 
Rev. Mr. Davis; Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write one under another, on a letter sheet, in proper form 
the following headings and introductions : 

L 44 Main St., Cincinnati, O., March 15, 1900. Miss 
Thompson, Dear Madam, 

2. New York, Aug. 5, 1901. Rev. John Brown, D.D., 
Dear Sir, 

3. Penn Yan, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1901. My dear Mr. Smith. 



188 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

4. Washington, D. C, Oct. 9, 1901. Mrs. C. H. Pearsall. 
Dear Madam. 

5. Philadelphia, Jan. 1, 1900. Col. Henry Johnson, Wash- 
ington, D. C, U. S. A. Dear Colonel, 

6. Binghamton, N. Y., July 21, 1902. Dear Miss Adams, 

7. Canton, 111., Aug. 10, 1902. My dear Friend, 
Give a jreneral talk about the lesson. 



LESSON CI 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 

No. 21 ]\Iain Street, 

Dover, Delaware, 
July S, 1902. 
Dear Henry, 

Cousin Richard is here with us now, and he and I intend to 
go to Revona Lake, Saturday morning, to spend the day and 
do some fisliing also. 

Can you go with us? If so, let me know at once, and we will 
call for you Friday evening about four o'clock. You can go 
home A\'ith us and we shall then be ready to start early Saturday 
morning. Be prepared to come if possible, and I am sure we 
shall have a pleasant time. 

Your friend, 

Harry Inglewald. 

These two boys are intimate friends. Henry lives on 
a farm outside of Dover, but gets his mail at that post- 
office. He came to the office for his mail, but not having 
time to call on Harry, he wrote an answer as follows: 

Dover, Delaware, 
July 9, 1902. 
Dear Harry, 

I have just received your letter inviting me to go with j-ou to 
Revona Lake, and I shall be ready to go at the time appointed. 



LETTER-WRITING 189 

Thanking you for your kind invitation, and hoping we shall 
all enjoy the day, 

I remain 

Your friend, 

Henry Goodfellow. 



LESSON CII 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 

Norwalk, Ct., 

Sept. 5, 1902. 
To the Editor of the School Journal, 

61 East Ninth St., New York City, N. Y. 
Dear Sir, 

Inclosed find P. O. order for two dollars ($2.00), for which 
please send me the School Journal for one year commencing with 
the September number. 

Yours respectfully, 

Jas. J, Worth. 

James decided to go to New York for a few days, and 
his uncle, Josiah Smith, gave him a letter of introduction 
to one of his friends in the city. 
Here it is: 

Norwalk, Ct., 

Sept. 21, 1902. 
My dear Sir, 

It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my young nephew, 
Jas. J. Worth, who desires to spend a few days in the city. Any 
attention you may be able to give him will be gratefully acknowl- 
edged and cheerfully reciprocated by 

Your old friend, 

Josiali Smith. 
Mr. Walter L. Young. 



190 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

On the envelope was written, 

Mr. Walter L. Young, 

313 Fifth Ave., 

New York City, 

N. Y. 
Introducing Mr. Jas. J. Worth, 

Copy these letters. — Explain use of capitals and punctua- 
tion. 



LESSON cm 

LETTER- WRITING (Continued) 

NOTE OF INVITATION (Formal) 

Miss Jennie Booth requests the pleasure of Miss Harriet Cole- 
man's company on Thursday evening, June 4, at eight o'clock. 
195 Christian Street. 

ACCEPTANCE OF SAME 

Miss Harriet Coleman accepts with pleasure Miss Jennie Booth's 
invitation for Thursday evening next at eight o'clock. 
21 Ehn St., May 31. 

THE INVITATION DECLINED 

Miss Harriet Coleman regrets that a previous engagement 
prevents the acceptance of Miss Booth's kind invitation for Thurs- 
day evening next. 

21 Elm St., May 31. 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

Write an invitation to one of your schoolmates, also an 
acceptance and a declination. 



LETTER-WRITING 191 

LESSON CIV 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 
NOTES OF INVITATION 

Saturday morning, May 10. 
Dear Flora, 

We are going to Walnut Mountain this afternoon to gather 
some wild flowers. We have a telescope AAdth wliich we can have 
a fine view of the surrounding country. We shall be very much 
pleased to have you go vnih us. If you can go, we will call for 
you at two o'clock. Do go. 

Yours affectionately, 

Wilhelmina. 
Please answer by bearer. 

REPLY 

My dear Wilhelmina, 

I shall be delighted to go with you this afternoon, and will be 
ready at the time appointed. 

Flora. 

Leavenworth, Kansas, 
Sept. 6, 1902. 
Dear Frank, 

I suppose you are attending school now; but can't you come 
in from the country Friday after school and stay mth me until 
Saturday afternoon, or, what would be better, until ]\Ionday 
morning? 

The Epworth League will hold their meeting at our house on 
Friday evening, and they will have recitations, songs, pla3's, etc. 
I think you will enjoy the meeting very much, and I am sure 
we shall all enjoy having you with us. Do come if 3'ou can. 

Your friend, 

Henry Watson. 



192 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

90 West End Avenue, New York City, N. Y., 

Oct. 17, 1902. 
My dear Mr. Collins, 

Dr. Dupont and some friends of his and mine will dine with 
me on Saturday next at six o'clock, and we shall feel highly honored 
and i^leased by your company. 

With the greatest respect, I am. 

Yours truly, 

W. J. Wineman. 

REPLY 

Middletown, N. Y., 

Oct. 17, 1902. 
My dear Mr. Wineman, 

It will give me great pleasure to dine with you on Saturday, 
and I shall feel not only honored but delighted to be present. 

Very truly yours, 

J. A. Collins. 



LESSON CV 

LETTER-WRITING (Continued) 

NOTE OF EXCUSE 

Will Prof. Dann kindly excuse Henry from school to-day, and 
greatly oblige his mother, Mrs. M. Wright? 
Tuesday morning, Oct. 14. 

NOTE WITH GIFT 

Miss Hall presents her compliments to Miss Widemeyer, and 
begs her to accept this little memento with best wishes for the 
New Year. 

Academy Street, 
Jan. 1, 1903. 



NOTES 193 

NOTE OF INTRODUCTION 

Mr. J. R. Andrews, 

Trustee of School District No. 9, Fallsburgh, N. Y. 
Dear Sir, 

Miss Endicott is desirous of securing a position as teacher of 
your school. She possesses a First Grade Certificate, which gives 
evidence of superior intellectual qualifications. The importance 
of having children trained in habits of order, neatness, and pro- 
priety of conduct, in connection with intellectual training, cannot 
be overestimated. In these respects you will find her equally 
valuable. 

I consider her a teacher worthy of your highest consideration. 

Yours truly, 

J. W. Davenport. 

EXAMPLES OF ADVERTISEMENTS 

Wanted — A young woman to do general housework. Only a 
well-qualified person need apply. 

104 Lexington Street. 
Wanted — By a boy of fifteen, a situation to work for board 
and washing while attending the High School. 

J. E. Potter, Crary, ]\Iinn. 
For Sale — One second-hand bicycle, httle used. 

Call at 47 West Houston St., New York City. 



LESSON CVI 

NOTES 

INDIVIDUAL NOTE. NEGOTIABLE 

$100. Monticello, Nov. 8, 1902. 

Sixty days after date I promise to pay James Quiiin or order 
one hundred dollars at the Monticello National Bank. Yahie 
received. 

John M. Wintasie. 



194 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE 

$45.00. Mountaindale, Nov. 1, 1902. 

Six months from date I promise to pay Jas. Jenkins Forty- 
Five Dollars, Value received, with interest from date. 

Henry Chamberlin. 

A promissory note is a formal written promise to pay a 
certain sum of money at a specified future time. 

The face of a note is the amount for which it is drawn. 

The payment of a note is due at the expiration of the 
time mentioned. 

If the last day is a holiday, then tlie note is legally due according 
to the laws of the State in which it is made. 

The person who signs the note is called the DRAWER or 
MAKER. 

The person to whom the note is payable is called the 
PAYEE. 

The person who has legal possession of the note is called 
the HOLDER. 

The words value received are evidence of a consideration 
given by the payee of the note. 

If the words with interest are inserted, then interest is 
due on the note from the date when it was drawTi. 

Sometimes a Due Bill is given instead of a note. It 
is not transferable. 

Due Bill 

$100. Buffalo, N. Y., July 5, 1002. 

Due Charles H. Pennypacker, on demand. One Hundred 
Dollars. Value received. 

James C. Penelope. 



CHECKS AND RECEIPTS 195 

A due bill is a brief written acknowledgment of a debt. 
It is not payable to order and cannot be transferred by in- 
dorsement. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a promissory note? 2. What is meant by the 
face of a note? 3. When is a note legally due? 4. Who is 
the drawpr? 5. Who is the payee? 6. Why is it necessar}^ 
to insert value received? 7. When does a note draw 
interest? 8. What is a due bill? 9. How does it differ from 
a note? 

Give a general talk about notes. 



LESSON CVII 





CHECKS AND RECEIPTS 








CHECKS 


(BLANK) 






No. 1. 

Nassau National Bank 
Pay to the order of 


New York, 




190 . 
Dollars. 


$ 










No. 2. 


New York, 


Nov. 


S, 1904. 



NASSAU NATIOxXAL BANK 

Pay to the order of James H. Dunn 

Forty-six Dollars. 

$4G. Cyrenus W. Longfellow. 

A bank check is an order on a bank, by a person who has money 
deposited therein, for a part or the whole of it. If the check 
is drawn paj^able to order, it may be transferred from one person 
to another. 



196 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
Checks are usually numbered when thej^ are dra\\'n. 

RECEIPTS 

$22i3J^. Newark, N. J., Oct. 5, 1902. 

Received of James Keough Twenty-Two f A Dollars to apply 
on account. 

James C. Cronin. 
$75. IMuncie, Ind., Oct. 3, 1902. 

Received of H. K. Roland Seventy-Five Dollars in full of all 
demands to date. 

Irving G. Benjamin. 

RECEIPTED BILL 

• Ithaca, Oct. 1, 1902. 
Miss Helen M. Castello 

To Jennie Whitcomb, Dr. 
For ten lessons in Vocal Music $10. 

Received payment. 

Jennie Whitcomb. 



LESSON CVIII 
GEORGE WASHINGTON 

George Washington, the leader of the American Revolution 
and first President of the United States, was born near Pope's 
Creek, a small tributary of the Potomac, in Westmoreland County, 
Virginia, Feb. 22, 1732, and died at Mount Vernon, Dec. 14, 1799. 

George Washington, while a boy of 13, wrote a manuscript 
entitled "Rules of Civility and Decent Behaviour in Compan)' 
and Conversation." It is not knoAm whether he compiled them 
or composed them. Probably they were selected. There is no 
doubt that these rules of j^ropriety and morals controlled his 
conduct through life. 

His studies at school were reading, writing, arithmetic, book- 



GEORGE WASHINGTON 



197 



keeping, and surveying. At the age of 16 he was engaged in survey- 
ing large estates of land in the wilderness. He kept a diary and 
recorded daily events, besides Avriting many letters to his relatives 
and friends. For three years he was engaged in surveying during 
the smnmer, and lived at home, at Mount Vernon, during the \\dnter. 
In tliis way George received a thorough, practical business educa- 
tion, besides being trained in habits of frugality and industry. 




Physically he was very strong, and he excelled in athletic exercises. 
His father died AA-hen he Avas 12 j-ears of age; and his mother 
believed that justice, veracity, and sterling honor Avere as necessary 
to his character as scholarly attainments. In this AA-ay his carlj^ 
training AA-as a preparation for a great and eA^entful life. 

George Washington AA'as Commander-in-chief of the army 
during the American ReA-olution, and Avas tAvice elected President 
of the United States. He is called the Father of his Country. 
His life AA^as a model of circumspection and prudence in word 



198 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

and deed. It may be said of him that he was the greatest of 
good men and the best of great men. 



LESSON CIX 
DEFINITIONS 

Character. The principles and motives that govern a person's 
life constitute a person's character in a community; the estimate 
put upon a person's business, social, and political relations in life. 

Industry. A diligent attention to any employment or pur- 
suit in life, bodily or mental; exertion of any kind emj^loyed 
for the creation of value. 

Frugality, That careful management of anything valuable in 
which a person expends nothing unnecessarily, and applies what 
is used to profitable purjDOses; thrift; habits of life AAithout ex- 
travagance. 

Justice. The rendering to every one his due or rights; just 
treatment. 

Veracity. Habitual observance of truth; truthfulness. 

Attainments. Those things which are acquired by effort, 
mental or physical. 

Circumspection. Attention to all the facts and circumstances 
in detail in a case; proper caution; watchfulness. 

Prudence. Wisdom in the way of caution in the conduct of 
affairs generally; careful method of doing anything. (Web. Int. 
Diet.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where was George Washington born? 2. Where did 
he die? 3. How old was he at his death? 4. What public 
positions did he hold? 5. What was he called? 6. How does 
he compare with other men? 7. What kind of education 
did he receive? 8. How old was he when his father died? 
9. Besides his studies in school wdiat else did his mother con- 
sider was essential for him to possess? 10. What is the 



MORE ABOUT WASHINGTON 199 

meaning of character? of attainments? of frugality? of in- 
dustry? of justice? of veracity? of honor? of circumspec- 
tion? of prudence? 

Tell in a connected manner what you have learned about 
Washington. 

Write a composition about the life of Washington in the 
manner of your talk about him without referring to the book. 

There is a story about Washington and the cherry tree 
when he was a little boy. Can you write a composition 
about it? 



LESSON CX 

MORE ABOUT WASHINGTON 

In the previous lesson you learned a short biographical 
sketch of George Washington. Write answers to the fol- 
lowing questions: 

1. Why was Washington called the Father of his Country? 

2. Why did the American people have so much confidence 
in him? 

3. If he had not possessed ability and uprightness of charac- 
ter, do you think he would have been chosen Commander- 
in-chief of the army, and later President of the United States? 

4. Do you think the rules of conduct which he observed in 
early life, and the wise counsels of his mother in connection 
with his early training, were necessary to make him become 
a great and good man? Why? 

5. Why are good habits and a diligent application of the 
mind in youth of advantage to every person later in life? 

6. Tell why it is necessary, in reading the biographies of 
great men, to consider the causes which made them great. 

7. Tell in what way you think you have been benefited by 
reading the biography of George Washington. 



200 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

8. In reading, why is it necessary that you should be 
famihar with the meaning of the words used? 

WRITTEN EXERCISE 

At your seat write as fully as you can answers to the eight 
questions asked in this lesson. 

Note. — If you have studied this and the two previous lessons care- 
fully, you will be able to stand and give a connected talk about Wash- 
ington. 

When you can do this, you should, in a similar manner, be prepared 
to read about any other great man and write a composition or short 
biographical sketch of his life. 



LESSON CXI 

VIEW OF MOUNT VERNON 

Mount Vernon, the home of George Washington, is situated 
on the right bank of the Potomac River, in Fairfax County, Vir- 
ginia, 15 miles from the city of Washington. The mansion is 
beautifully situated on a height crowTied with trees and command- 
ing a fine view of the Potomac. It was built by George W^asliington's 
eldest brother La^vrence, who settled there in 1743. Washington 
enlarged and improved it. The house is 96 feet long and two 
stories high, with a lofty portico extending along the whole front. 
In front of the house sloping to the river is a lawn of five or six 
acres. Behind the house is a large flower-garden which was 
laid out by Washington and is still preserved as he left it. 

The family vault is on the farm some distance from the house, 
at the edge of a deep wooded dale. 

Washington at his death bequeathed the property to Bushrod 
Washington, from whom it passed into the hands of John A. 
Washington. By him it was sold to the Ladies' Mount Vernon 
Association. There are two hundred acres of land connected with 
the mansion. 

Thousands visit the tomb of Washington every year. It is 



VIEW OF MOUNT VERNON 



201 




MuuNT Vkknon, the IIu-me of Washingtun. 



intended that the place shall be kept sacred to the mcmoi'}' of 
Washington for all time to come. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wliere is JNIoimt Vernon? 2. For what is it noted? 3. 
To whom does it now belong? 4. For what purpose is it 
kept by them? 5. By whom is it visited? 6. Why do tlie 
American people take so much interest in this place? 

Give in a connected manner a description of IMount ^'ornon. 
From memory write a description of IMount ^"ernon. Add 
whatever you may have learned about the place from other 
sources. 



202 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

LESSON CXII 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

Abraham Lincoln, an American lawyer and statesman, and Presi- 
dent of the United States during the Civil War, was born in Hodgen- 
ville, Ky., Feb. 12, 1809, and was assassinated in Ford's Theater, 




Washington, D. C, by J. Wilkes Booth, on Good Friday night, 
April 14, 1865. 

His ancestors, who were Quakers, went from Bucks County, Pa., 
to Buckingham, Va. Thomas Lincoln, the father of Abraham, 
was born in Virginia, and in 1806 married Nancy Hanks, also 
a native of Virginia. Soon after he moved to Kentucky, where 
Abraham Lincoln was born. Later Thomas Lincoln moved to 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN 203 

Spencer County, Ind. In 1830, Thomas Lincoln removed to 
Macon County, 111., and Abraham helped to build a log cabin for 
the family and to split rails enough to fence ten acres of land. 

In his youth Abraham Lincoln went to school at intervals, and 
these opportunities amounted in the aggregate to about one year. 
But he studied at home and read such books as were mthin his 
reach. He studied law, was elected to the legislature, and later 
to the presidency of the United States. 

Abraham Lincoln was six feet four inches in height, and was 
a very strong man. He occupied the first rank as a clear, concise^ 
logical speaker. As President of the United States, he was the 
right man in the right place, and one of the greatest of statesmen. 
His hfe is evidence of what may be accompUshed by patient 
perseverance, industrious habits, and a frugal, temperate hfe. 
QUESTIONS 

1. Where was Abraham Lincoln born? 2. Who were his 
ancestors? 3. What were his opportunities to acquire an 
education? 4. When was he President of the United States? 
5. Where was he assassinated? 6. What lesson may be 
learned from his life? 



LESSON CXIII 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN (Continued) 

A letter written by Abraham Lincohi to a lady who 
lost her five sons in the Civil War. 

This letter, it is said, has been engrossed and hung 
in one of the halls of Oxford LTniversity, England, as a 
specimen of pure English and elegant diction. 

The nobility of thought, and the beauty and simplicity of 
expression, in this letter should be carefully studied by j^ou. 

From your dictionary learn the meaning of the most 
important words in this loiter until }ou fully comprehend 
its import or signification. Study it until you are deeply 
impressed by the noble, beautiful, and touching language 
which the heart of the President prompted him to use. 



204 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Dear Madam: — 

I have been shown in the files of the War Dejiartment a state- 
ment of the adjutant-general of Massachusetts, that you were 
the mother of five sous who have died gloriously on the battle- 
field. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any word of mine 
which should attemj^t to beguile you from the grief of a loss so 
overwhelming. 

But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation 
that may be found in the thanks of the republic they died to save. 
I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of 
your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory 
of the loved and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours 
to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. 

Very respectfully yours, 

Abraham Lincoln. 



LESSON CXIV 
FORMATION OF WORDS 

Words in English are primitive, or derivative, simple, 

or COMPOUND. 

A stem is a word or part of a word taken from some other 
language, in which it may be either primitive or derivative. 
It cannot be used alone in English; but when united with 
a suffix or a prefix or both it forms derivative words. 

Observe the formation of the foUowing derivative words, 
formed from the stem ject and suffixes and prefixes, their 
meanings, and the meaning of the derivative words formed 
from them. 

DERIVATIVE 



lEFIX 


. MEANING. 


STEM. 


MEANING. 


AVOKD. 


MEANING. 


De, 


down 


+ ject. 


to cast 


= deject. 


to cast down. 


E, 


out 


+ ject, 


to cast 


= eject, 


to cast out. 


In, 


in or into 


+ ject. 


to cast 


= inject. 


to cast into. 


Re, 


back 


+ ject, 


to cast 


= reject. 


to cast back. 


Pro, 


forward 


+ ject, 


to cast 


= project. 


to cast forward. 



FORMATION OF WORDS 205 

To the word deject we may add the suffix ed, forming 
the perfect participle dejected, meaning cast down. Add 
ed to the other derivative words. 

Deject +ed= dejected, cast down. 
Ej ect + ed = ej ected , cast out. 
Inject +ed= injected, cast into. 
Reject +ed = rejected, cast back, or out. 
Pro j ect +ed= projected, cast forward. 

If to the word deject we add er and or to the other words, 
meaning one who or that which, we have, 

Deject +er =dejecter, one who casts down. 
Eject + or = ejector, one who ejects, or that which ejects. 
Inject + or = injector, one who or that which injects. 
Reject + or = rejector, one who or that which rejects. 
Project + or = projector, one who projects. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a primitive word? a derivative word? 2. What 
is a stem? 3. How are words in EngUsh formed from stems? 
4. Give the formation of the words deject, eject, inject, reject, 
project. 5. Give the formation of the words dejected, ejected, 
injected, rejected, projected. 6. Give the formation of the 
words dejecter, ejector, injector, rejector, projector. 7. 
What is a suffix? 8. What is a prefix? 



LESSON CXV 

FORMATION OF WORDS (Continued) 

DERIVATIVE 
PREFIX. MEANING. STEM. MEANING. word MEANING. 

1. Contra, against +dict, to speak = contradict, to speak 

against. 

2. Inter, between +dict, to speak = interdict, spoken between; 

a prohibition. 

3. Pre, before +dict, to speak = predict, to say beforehand. 



206 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

PREFIX. MEANING. STEM. MEANING. ^^^^.^Qpl^^^ MEANING. 

4. De, down + scribe, to write = describe, to write down; 

(script) to give an account 

5. Circum, round + scribe, to write = circumscribe, to write a 

boundary; to encircle. 

6. Sub, under + scribe, to write = subscribe, to write under. 

7. Post, after + script, written = postscript, written after. 

Give the formation of each of the seven words, the meaning 
of the prefixes, and the stems; also the meaning of each of 
the derivative words. 



LESSON CXVI 

A FEW LATIN PREFIXES 

Con, which forms com, co, col, cor, means Together; as, 

contract, to draw together; collect, to gather together; 

compel, to drive together; conjunction, a joining together, 

coerce, to force together; 

Contra, or Contro, means Against, or Counter; as, 

contradict, to speak against; controvert, to turn against, 

contravene, to come against; 

Dis, or Di, means Away, or Apart; as, 

dispel, to drive away; divert, to turn away, 

dissect, to cut away; 

E, or Ex, making also ec, ef, means Out; as, 

eject, to cast out; excite, to summon out; 

elect, to choose; ecstasy, a raising out; 

exclude, to shut out; efface, to blot out. 

Intro means In, Inward, or Within; as, 

introduce, to lead in; introspect, to look within; 

introvert, to turn inward; intromission, a sending in. 



A FEW LATIN PREFIXES 207 

Ob, which makes also oc, of, op, means Against; as, 

obtrude, to thrust against; oppose, to place against; 

occur, to run against; object, to place against. 

offer, to bring against; 



LESSON CXVII 

LATIN PREFIXES (Continued) 

Per means Through or By; as, 

pervade, to go through; per cent, by the hundred: 

perchance, by chance; perplex, to tangle together, or 

to entangle thoroughly. 

Re means Again, or Back; as, 

review, to view again; repel, to drive back. 

Retro means Backward, Backwards, or Back; as, 

retroactive, acting backward ; retrocede, to cede back, 

retrograde, going backward ; 

Se means Aside or Apart; as, 
seduce, to lead aside; secede, to go apart. 

Semi means Half; as, 
semicolon, half a colon; semicircle, half a circle. 

Sub, which makes suf, sug, sup, and .s?/.s-, means Under, 
and sometimes Up; as, 

subscribe, to write under; supply, to put under; 

suffusion, the state of being suf- surreption, a creeping under; 

fused; sustain, to hold up; 

suggest, to convey under; gubject, to cast under. 



208 FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 

Super means Over, or Above; as, 

superfluous, flowing over; superlative, carried over, or 

supernatant, swimming above ; carrying over ; 

supervise, to overlook; to over- 
see. 

Trans means Beyond, Over, To another state or 
place; as, 

transgress, to pass beyond or transform, to change to another 

over ; shape ; 

transcend, to climb over; transmit, to send to another 

place; 



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